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ABB;Abbasids;x
ABB_DESC;The Abbasid dynasty, which ruled from 750 to 1258 AD, was the second great dynasty of the Muslim Caliphate, succeeding the Umayyad dynasty. The Abbasids established their capital in Baghdad, transforming it into a vibrant center of learning, culture, and commerce. Under their rule, the Islamic Golden Age flourished, marked by significant advancements in science, mathematics, medicine, and literature. The dynasty's power began to wane in the 9th century, due in large part to dynastic infighting and corruption - known as the 'Anarchy at Samarra' - culminating in the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258.;x
ACH;Achaea;x
ACH_DESC;The Principality of Achaea was a feudal state established in the Peloponnese region of Greece following the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Founded by William of Champlitte and Geoffrey I of Villehardouin, it became one of the most powerful and influential Crusader states in Greece. The principality thrived under the Villehardouin dynasty, known for its chivalric culture and strong fortifications, including the famous castles of Chlemoutsi and Mystras. Despite its initial success, the principality faced numerous challenges, including conflicts with the Byzantine Empire and internal strife, eventually falling to the Byzantine reconquest in 1432. The legacy of the Principality of Achaea is marked by its blend of Western European and Byzantine influences, leaving a lasting impact on the region's history and architecture.;x
ADA;Adal;x
ADA_DESC;Of the medieval centralized state systems of Somali history, Adal was prominent. During the 16th century, its borders extended from Zeila, its capital, through the fertile valleys of the Jijiga and the Harer plateau to the Ethiopian highlands. Adal was founded by the former people of Ifat, a sultanate destroyed by the Ethiopians in the 14th century. Holding true to this legacy, Adal is famous for its conflicts with the expansionist Ethiopians. Eventually, this would prove to be its undoing.;x
ADE;Aden;x
ADE_DESC;Aden's strategic location and its importance as a commercial center long made it a coveted conquest for its rapacious neighbors. Muslim Arabs held the region from the 7th to the 16th centuries. The Portuguese, desiring more bases for further exploration and trade in the Indian Ocean, failed in an attempt to capture it in 1513, but in 1538 it fell to the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the 18th century Aden's importance as a strategic post grew as a result of British policy to contain French expansion in the region.;x
AFG;Afghanistan;x
AFG_DESC;Bâbur (Arab for Tiger), a descendant of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, used Kabul as the base for his conquest of India and the establishment of the Mughal Empire in the early 16th century. In the 18th century the Persian ruler, Nadir Shah, extended his rule to the North of the Hindu Kush. The first Afghan state in the modern sense arose after Nadir's death in 1747 under his lieutenant Ahmad Shah - an Afghan tribal leader who forged a united state covering most of present-day Afghanistan. His dynasty gave the Afghans a name (Durrani) that they themselves frequently use.;x
AHM;Ahmadnagar;x
AHM_DESC;Ahmadnagar was one of several sultanates that was formed during the collapse of the Bahmani Sultanate. Constantly at war with its neighbors, Ahmadnagar would remain independent until conqued by Mughal Shah Jahan in 1636.;x
AJU;Ajuuraan;x
AJU_DESC;Ajuuraan was a powerful Somali empire that existed between the 14th and 17th centuries.  The Ajuuraans managed to unify many of the quarrelsome Somali tribes, creating a strong centralized administration. Having weathered the Oromo invasions and the dethronement of its most important vassals in Mogadishu, the empire would eventually collapse due to the whims of its later Imams. Racked by numerous rebellions, Ajuuraan was only a shell of a state by the turn of the 18th century.;x
AKK;White Sheep;x
AKK_DESC;The Aq Qoyunlu ('White Sheep') were a Turkmen tribal federation that ruled northern Iraq, Azerbaijan and eastern Anatolia. In constant tension with the Ottomans and lesser Turkish principalities in Anatolia, as well as their cousins to the south - the Qara Qoyunlu ('Black Sheep') - the Aq Qoyunlu first sided with Timur and then attacked his successors. Though for a time their lands grew to include modern-day Iraq and most of Persia, they finally succumbed to the Shi'a heretics under the great Ismail Safavid, their last territories conquered by the Ottomans in the early 16th century.;x
ALB;Albania;x
ALB_DESC;Throughout its history, the autochthonous populations of Albania, have been forced to retreat into the mountains by various invaders. In the 14th century they were occupied by the Serbs and, after a short time of autonomy, by the Ottomans in the 15th century. In the first half of the 15th century, the sons of a local chief were brought to the Sultan as hostages to ensure their father's good behavior. One of the sons converted to Islam, performed well in the Ottoman war school and on the battlefield and was awarded by the name of Iskander Bey ('Lord Alexander'). This name, known as Skanderberg in Albania, was to be the flag of a renewed resistance when he returned to his country home and reconverted to Christianity. Supported by three Italian states, his efforts gained Albania's independence. Following his death, a twelve year struggle ensued where by Albania eventually succumbed to the might of the Muslims. Albania became an Ottoman province, providing fierce soldiers and many capable administrators.;x
ALD;Algeria;x
ALD_DESC;After the 'Reconquista', many of the Moors expelled from Granada in 1492 settled in the city of Al-jaza'ir (Algiers). Trying to stem their incessant piracy, the Spanish occupied the island of Peñon in the Bay of Algiers, but they were driven out when Turkish corsair Barbarossa captured Algiers for the Ottoman Empire in 1529. Algiers became an important base for the Muslim fleet that preyed upon Christian commerce in the Mediterranean. Under the Ottomans the city's population reached 100,000. The ruling Turkish officials in Algeria, the Deys of Algiers, finally made themselves virtually independent of Istanbul in the 18th and 19th century.;x
ALM;Almohads;x
ALM_DESC;The Almohad dynasty, founded in the 12th century by Ibn Tumart, was a Berber Muslim empire that rose to power in North Africa and Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia). Known for their strict adherence to a puritanical form of Islam, the Almohads overthrew the Almoravid dynasty in 1147 and established their capital in Marrakesh. Under the leadership of Abd al-Mu'min, they expanded their territory significantly, reaching their zenith in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. The dynasty is noted for its cultural and intellectual contributions, including the works of philosophers like Ibn Rushd (Averroes). However, their power began to decline after the decisive defeat at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, leading to the eventual fall of their empire by 1269.;x
ALT;Altmark;x
ALT_DESC;The Altmark ('Old March') is an historic region in northern Saxony. It is considered the cradle of the March of Brandenburg and, by extension, the Prussian state, earning it the nickname 'the Cradle of Prussia.' This region is characterized by its picturesque medieval towns and villages, some of which date back over a thousand years. The Altmark played a significant role in the early development of Brandenburg and later Prussia, contributing greatly to her rise as a great power.;x
AMG;Armagnac;x
AMG_DESC;Armagnac, an historic region in southwestern France, is renowned for its production of the world's oldest brandy, dating back to the 13th century. Located in Gascony, Armagnac was originally part of the duchy of Gascony and became an autonomous political unit in the 10th century. The region gained strategic importance during the Hundred Years' War, serving as a buffer zone between French and English-controlled territories in Aquitaine, and being the powerbase of Bernard VII of Armagnac - the original leader of the pro-royalist, anti-Burgundian party (the Armagnacs). Its cultural contributions are significant, including the production of its famous brandy, which was initially used for medicinal purposes and later became a prized commodity.;x
AMI;Armenia Minor;x
AMI_DESC;Armenia Minor or Little Armenia was born from a double invasion. In 1021, the Byzantine Empire annexed the Vaspurakan Kingdom, in Greater Armenia, and supported the migration of Armenians across the empire, to serve as traders and administrators. Half a century later, the area was invaded by Seljuk Turks, prompting many of the remaining Armenians to flee. A group of Armenians, led by the Prince Reupen, settled in 1080 in Cilicia where some Armenian communities already existed. They created the kingdom of Armenia Minor (Little Armenia). They lasted in the area, allied to the Byzantine Empire and to the new Crusader States in the Holy Land, until they were conquered by the Mamluks in 1375.;x
ANG;Angoche;x
ANG_DESC;The Sultanate of Angoche, established around 1485, was a significant Islamic trading state located along the northern coast of Mozambique. Initially a vassal of the Kilwa Sultanate, Angoche gained independence in 1513 and became a prominent center for trade, particularly in gold and ivory. The sultanate's strategic location allowed it to thrive as a hub for Muslim traders bypassing Portuguese-controlled routes. Despite its prosperity, Angoche faced economic decline and political challenges, including conflicts with the Portuguese, who eventually conquered it in 1910.;x
ANH;Anhalt;x
ANH_DESC;Anhalt, an historic region in central Germany, was once a duchy located between the Harz Mountains and the River Elbe. It was ruled by the House of Ascania and became a principality in 1218. Over the centuries, Anhalt experienced numerous divisions and reunifications, resulting in various principalities such as Anhalt-Dessau, Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Zerbst. The region played a significant role in the power-politics of the Holy Roman Empire, and later became part of the German Empire in 1871.;x
ANJ;Anjou;x
ANJ_DESC;Anjou, in the lower Loire Valley of northwestern France, was originally organized as the Civitas Andegavensis during the Gallo-Roman period. It later became the county of Anjou and, in 1360, was elevated to a duchy. Anjou was ruled by the powerful Angevin dynasty, scions of which went on to rule Jerusalem, Naples, Hungary and England - whose latter branch became known as the Plantagenets. From its influential capital Angers, it played a crucial role in medieval European politics, particularly during the expansion of the Angevin Empire (1154-1214) under Henry II and his sons. Anjou later became an external territory of Provence, finally being annexed to the French crown in 1480.;x
ANN;Annam;x
ANN_DESC;'Annam' is a Chinese name meaning 'Pacified South'. It was given by the Chinese after their conquest in 111 B.C. and the land kept it until the inhabitants drove out the Chinese in 939. The land was then renamed Dai Co Viet and later Dai Viet. It remained independent but always under the threat of its powerful northern neighbour. It even knew a short period of Chinese occupation from 1407-1428. Perpetually unstable, by 1558, Dai Viet was divided between two great families, the Trinh, in the north in Tonkin (present-day Hanoi) and the Nguyens in the center and south with their capital in Hue. The civil war was interspersed with conflicts involving the neighboring kingdoms of Champa and Cambodia. In 1802, the Nguyen family eventually united both Tonkin-Dai Viet and Annam-Dai Vie and the country was renamed as Vietnam.;x
ANS;Ansbach;x
ANS_DESC;Ansbach grew around a Benedictine monastery founded in 748 AD. It became the seat of the Hohenzollern family in 1331 and later the residence of the Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach. The city flourished during the Baroque period, with notable architectural landmarks such as the Ansbach Residence and the Church of St. Gumbertus. In 1791, Ansbach was annexed by Prussia and later became part of Bavaria in 1806.;x
ANT;Antioch;x
ANT_DESC;The Principality of Antioch was established in 1098 during the First Crusade, and was located in what is now modern-day Turkey and Syria. Centered around the walled city of Antioch, it was one of the most significant and enduring Crusader states, lasting until its fall to the Mamluks in 1268. The principality was ruled by Bohemond I and his descendants, who expanded its territory and fortified its defences. Despite frequent conflicts with neighboring Muslim states and internal succession disputes, Antioch thrived as a commercial hub, benefiting from its strategic location and trade agreements with both the Byzantines to the north and Latin Crusaders to the south.;x
APA;Navajo;x
APA_DESC;The Navajo are a composite tribal group consisting of over 50 separate clans. In the 17th century they occupied the region between the San Juan and Little Colorado rivers in Northeast Arizona, but they ranged far outside that territory. The were a predatory tribe who, often in alliance with the Apache, constantly raided the Pueblo and later the Spanish and Mexican settlements of New Mexico.;x
APU;Apulia;x
APU_DESC;Apulia, also known as Puglia, was originally inhabited by the Iapygians, and became a significant part of Magna Graecia when Greek settlers established colonies along its coast in the 8th century BC. The region was later conquered by the Romans in the 4th century BC, who left behind numerous archaeological sites. Throughout the Middle Ages, Apulia was ruled by various powers, including the Goths, Lombards, Byzantines, and Normans, each leaving their mark on its culture and architecture.;x
AQU;Aquileia;x
AQU_DESC;Aquileia, founded by the Romans in 181 BC, was a prominent city located at the head of the Adriatic Sea in what is now northern Italy. It served as a strategic military outpost and a major commercial hub, facilitating trade between the Roman Empire and northern Europe. By the 2nd century AD, Aquileia had grown into one of the largest cities of the Roman Empire, with a population of around 100,000. The city was also a significant center for early Christianity and played a crucial role in the spread of the religion throughout the Roman Empire, with the powerful Patriarchate of Aquileia existing from the 4th century until its dissolution in 1751. Despite being sacked by Attila the Hun in 452 AD, Aquileia's well-preserved basilica, walls and monuments continue to offer valuable insights into Roman urban life and early Christian history.;x
ARA;Hejaz;x
ARA_DESC;The Hejaz is the western area of the Arabian Peninsula, along the Red Sea.  It is famous for the two holy cities of Medina and Mecca. In 1258, after the fall of the Caliphate in Baghdad, the land fell under the control of the Egyptian Mamluks. In 1517, this sovereignty went to the Turkish Ottomans. However, the local power was actually still in the hands of the Sharifs of Mecca whose continuous dynasty began in the 12th century. These sharifs would defend the Holy Cities against Wahhabist fundamentalists in the early 19th century, and one century later, would lead the revolt against the Ottomans.;x
ARB;Arborea;x
ARB_DESC;The Judicate of Arborea was one of the four independent judicates of medieval Sardinia. Established in the 11th century, it was centered around the city of Oristano and played a crucial role in resisting external domination, particularly from the Aragonese. Under the leadership of notable figures like Eleanor of Arborea, it maintained a degree of autonomy and implemented progressive legal reforms, such as the Carta de Logu. The kingdom persisted until the early 15th century when it was eventually absorbed into the Crown of Aragon.;x
ARG;Aragon;x
ARG_DESC;The Crown of Aragon was created in 1137 when the Count of Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer, married Peronella of Aragon when she was only two years old. The two nations became united and began their drive to the south to expel the Moors from Spain, conquering Valencia and the Balearic Islands. In 1412 Martí l'Humà, the last Catalan King of the Barcelona dynasty died heirless and the nobles gathered to elect Ferran I d'Antequera, putting a Castillian King on the Aragonese throne for the first time in history in spite of strong Catalan opposition. John II of Aragon (1458-79), countered residual Catalan resistance by arranging for his heir, Ferdinand, to marry the heiress of Henry IV of Castile - Isabella. In 1479, upon John II's death, the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile were finally united to form the kingdom of Spain.;x
ARK;Arakan;x
ARK_DESC;Arakan, or Rakhine, extends along the Bay of Bengal and lies at the foot of the Arakan Yoma mountain range. The Arakanese were of Burmese heritage with Indian and Muslim influences. The region was geographically isolated and in the 15th century was the seat of a powerful kingdom. Their capital was a strongly fortified city called Mrohaung. The Arakanese sold rice and slaves to the Dutch and the Portuguese, allying with the latter when the Mughal Empire threatened their freedom and the rich trade. The Arakanese ceased to be a power in 1666 when the Mughals defeated them in a decisive battle. In 1783 they were finally absorbed into Burma. Part of their cultural legacy was the construction of a colossal image of Buddha.;x
ARL;Arles;x
ARL_DESC;The Kingdom of Arles, also known as the Second Kingdom of Burgundy, was established in 933 through the merger of the kingdoms of Burgundy and Provence under the Welf King Rudolf II. It became a significant realm within the Holy Roman Empire, stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the Rhine, encompassing parts of modern-day France, Italy, and Switzerland. The kingdom was known for its strategic importance and cultural influence during the High Middle Ages. However, by the mid-13th century, it had lost much of its political relevance and was eventually absorbed into the Holy Roman Empire. Thereafter, Arles existed purely as a vague ceremonial entity, and - like Italy and Lotharingia - was a crown held by the Emperor personally.;x
ARM;Armenia;x
ARM_DESC;Dating back to the 6th century B.C, Armenia is one of the oldest nations in the world and also reckoned as the oldest Christian state. Armenia was conquered and ruled in turn by Alexander the Great, Syria, Rome and Persia until it could enjoy a period of autonomy under native rulers 886-1046. Then it was reconquered by the Byzantines, who promptly lost it to the Seljuk Turks following the Byzantine defeat at the battle of Manzikert in 1071. In the late 14th century the Mongol conqueror Timur (Tamerlane) seized Greater Armenia and massacred a large part of the population. After Timur's death in 1405 the Ottoman Turks whom Timur had crushed in 1402 invaded Armenia, and by the beginning of the 16th century held all of it. Under Ottoman rule the Armenians, although often persecuted and always discriminated against because of their religion, nevertheless acquired a vital economic role. Constantinople and all other large cities of the Ottoman Empire had quarters with Armenian merchants and financiers.;x
ART;Artois;x
ART_DESC;Artois, an historic region in northern France, has a rich history dating back to Roman times when it was inhabited by the Atrebates. It became a feudal county in the Middle Ages and was annexed by the County of Flanders before coming under direct French royal control in 1180 as part of a dowry. The region experienced periods of Burgundian and Habsburg rule before being permanently integrated into France in 1659 following the Treaty of the Pyrenees. Artois played a significant role in European history, particularly during the Hundred Years' War and the later Franco-Spanish conflicts. Its capital, Arras, is noted for its beautiful Flemish Baroque architecture.;x
ASH;Ashanti;x
ASH_DESC;Sometime prior to the 13th century, Akani tribes migrated into the forests of present-day Ghana, establishing small states in the hilly country near modern Kumasi. By the late 17th century the states had been welded together by the Oyoko clan into the Ashanti confederation, with its capital at Kumasi and the Oyoko chieftain as king. After subduing various neighboring states the confederation eventually came into conflict with British settlers on the coast, although treaties of friendship were negotiated in 1817 and 1820.;x
ASS;Assam;x
ASS_DESC;Assam is a nation with a long and rich history, situated high above the Ganges delta in the plateaus surrounding the mighty Bramhaputra river and the surrounding hilly jungles. The Kings of Kamarupa ruled this isolated area until 1228 when the Ahom Kings usurped power in this Hindu Kingdom. Playing as Assam, your traditional enemies are the Burmese, who reside in the southeast and have not yet grown strong enough to threaten you while your larger neighbors the Bengalis seem to have their attention fixed on the oncoming Islamic threat. Will you break your isolation and ally with the Muslims against your old foes, or will you follow history and remain a Hindu stronghold until falling to the Burmese in 1819?;x
AST;Astrakhan;x
AST_DESC;The Astrakhan Khanate was a splinter of the Golden Horde that existed as an independent state from 1459 to 1556, when it was conquered by Ivan the Terrible and incorporated into Russia. In 1608 it was conquered by the Kalmyks, migrating west from their homeland in Dzungaria. The Kalmyk Khanate lasted until 1771, when it was finally reclaimed by Russia.;x
ASU;Asturias;x
ASU_DESC;Asturias, located in the northwestern part of Spain, has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era, with evidence of early human settlements in its numerous caves. The region became a significant part of the Roman Empire and later emerged as the Kingdom of Asturias in 718 AD, founded by the Visigothic nobleman Pelagius. This kingdom played a crucial role in the Christian Reconquista against the Moors. Asturias is known for its rugged landscapes, including the Cantabrian Mountains, and its cultural heritage, which includes traditional music, dance, and cuisine.;x
ATH;Athens;x
ATH_DESC;The Duchy of Athens was created after the Fourth Crusade and the creation of the Latin Empire of Constantinople in 1204. Othon de la Roche, a French lord and templar from Besançon in Franche-Comté, became the first megaskyr (great lord) of Athens and Thebes. The land enjoyed great prosperity under his rule and that of his successors. Many French nobles settled in Greece, bringing some of their institutions, which led them to clash with their Greek neighbors. In 1311, the Duke of Athens rented a mercenary troop from Catalonia in order to fight the ruler of Epirus. He foolishly refused to pay them and they revolted, capturing the duchy and offering it to the House of Aragon. Catalan and Aragonese nobles settled in the area and the Duchy expanded to the north. In 1388, the Duchy was conquered by a Florentine noble, Nerio I Acciajuoli. Numerous Florentine merchants established themselves in Athens. Christian rule was to end in 1458 when the Ottomans seized the Acropolis beginning four centuries of Turkish occupation and the city's slow decline. Venice, which had held Athens from 1394 to 1402, took it again shortly in 1466 and besieged it in 1687. It is during this siege that the Parthenon was blown out when a powder reserve exploded.;x
ATJ;Aceh;x
ATJ_DESC;The sultanate of Aceh was founded on the northern tip of the Island of Sumatra by Ali Mughayat Shah in 1514. It was a powerful Islamic state that struggled for control of the trade passing through the Malacca Straits for most of the 16th and 17th centuries. Muslim traders often chose the protection of the sultanate rather than using the Dutch or Portuguese trading posts. The sultanate reached its greatest heights during the rule of Iskandar Mura in the early 16th century, who seized Deli (now Medan), raided Johor and defeated a Portuguese fleet. After his rule, the position of sultan became less important as the nobility became more and more independent. The state eventually became a place of religious studies rather than a political and military power. By 1820, Aceh was producing half of the world's pepper, which drew the attention of the greedy English and Dutch.;x
ATL;Atlantis;x
ATL_DESC;No description available.;x
AUV;Auvergne;x
AUV_DESC;Auvergne was a part of the Roman province of Aquitaine. When Aquitaine passed to the English in 1154 through the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry II Plantagenet, the count of Auvergne became a vassal of the English king. In the 14th century the old county was divided into a dauphiné and a duchy, the latter given to duke Jean, son of king John II of France. The duchy eventually descended to Charles, the famous constable of France, who was able to unite duchy and dauphiné when he became Duke de Bourbon in 1503. But these Bourbon domains were confiscated by King Francis I after the constable's treason, and was to remain a crown holding.;x
AVI;Avignon;x
AVI_DESC;Avignon, located in southeastern France on the banks of the Rhône River, is a city steeped in history. Originally founded by the Gallic tribe of Cavares, it later became a significant Roman settlement. Avignon's prominence surged in the 14th century when it was chosen as the papal residence by Pope Clement V in 1309, making it the center of the Catholic Church until 1377. The city is renowned for the Palais des Papes (Papal Palace), a testament to its ecclesiastical heritage, and its historic center, which is a UNESCO World Heritage site.;x
AYU;Ayutthaya;x
AYU_DESC;The city of Ayutthaya was founded by Phya U-Thong in 1350. After consolidating his power he proclaimed himself king Ramathibodi I. Over the next 80 years the Ayutthayans expanded their territory, and in 1431 they captured Angkor - capital of the Khmer empire. The Ayutthayan kings adopted Khmer cultural influences and assumed the title devaraja, or god-king. The city of Ayutthaya became one of the wealthiest cities in the known world. By the 18th century the Ayutthayans had established trade with the Portuguese and diplomatic relations with several other western countries. In 1767 the Burmese captured Ayutthaya, although she regained her independence shortly thereafter.;x
AYY;Ayyubids;x
AYY_DESC;The Ayyubid dynasty, founded by the legendary Saladin in 1171, was a Sunni Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origin that ruled over Egypt, Syria, Yemen, and parts of Iraq and the Levant during the 12th and 13th centuries. Saladin, originally serving under the Zengid rulers, rose to prominence by uniting Muslim forces against the Crusaders and displacing the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt. The Ayyubids are renowned for their military prowess, architectural achievements, and the establishment of madrasahs (religious schools) in Egypt and Jerusalem. Despite internal family disputes and eventual decline, the Ayyubid legacy persisted in some regions until the mid-14th century.;x
AZT;Aztec;x
AZT_DESC;The Aztecs settled in the Mexico valley toward the end of the 12th century. Originally they came from the north and were a poor nomadic tribe. They founded their capital Tenochtitlán around 1325, on an island of the Lake Texcoco.  When they first settled at their capital, the Aztecs paid tributes to the surrounding tribes and used their city in the middle of swamps as a refuge to prevent destruction. Eventually through alliances, by conquests and many intrigues they managed to rise into a powerful regional power in the 15th and early 16th centuries. They subjugated most of the peoples around Mexico and rewrote their own history to create a myth about their destiny to rule over all the surrounding people and the necessity of make sacrifices to the Sun, a divinity that had made them so powerful. Neighboring peoples, such as the Tlaxcalans were happy to use the opportunity of the Spaniards arrival to shake free of Aztec domination. In time, the Spaniards would conquer those minor states, as well.;x
BAD;Baden;x
BAD_DESC;Baden, a geographical area in Germany, along the Rhine, was historically fragmented into many petty margraviates and ecclesiastical states. The margraviate of Baden, created in the Holy Roman Empire in the 12th century was often divided in different branches until its short unification under Christopher I of Baden-Baden in the early 16th century. Religious strife would split it again, this time into a Catholic state and a Lutheran state, the remaining lands went to the Habsburgs and the Rhenish Palatinate. In 1771, Baden was reunited again under a branch of the house of Zähringen. Charles Frederick of Baden became an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire in 1803 and joined the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, gaining the title of grand duke. With Napoleon's help, he became the master of the entire state of Baden in 1810 which would remain in the hands of his descendants even after the Vienna Congress.;x
BAE;Balearic Islands;x
BAE_DESC;The Balearic Islands, an archipelago in the western Mediterranean Sea, were initially inhabited by the prehistoric Talayotic people. The islands later came under the influence of Carthage in the 6th century BC, and subsequently Rome from around 120 BC. Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the islands experienced a series of conquests by the Vandals, Byzantines, and Moors. In the 13th century, they were incorporated into the Kingdom of Aragon and later became part of Spain.;x
BAH;Bahrain;x
BAH_DESC;Bahrain, an island nation in the Persian Gulf, boasts a rich history dating back over 5,000 years. It was the center of the ancient Dilmun civilization, a crucial trading hub linking Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. Over the centuries, Bahrain has seen various rulers, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and Portuguese. The Al Khalifa family established their rule in 1783 after asserting independence from Persia, and in turn fighting against Oman. Bahrain later became a British protectorate in the 19th century.;x
BAL;Baluchistan;x
BAL_DESC;The Baluchistan is a desert area covered by many hills and mountains. The nomadic Baluchi arrived in the 11th century, fleeing from Mongol migrations. They lived in tribes, in loose confederations. The area became famous when Persian intellectuals, architects, scientists, poets, theologists arrived in the 13th century fleeing the Arab invasion in Persia. Many settled before the creation of the Mughal Empire. The Baluchi tribes managed to unite to create the Kalat Kingdom in the 17th century which would remain independent until the 19th century.;x
BAN;Bantus;x
BAN_DESC;Prior to the European conquest of Africa the Bantu tribes were either pastoral and warlike or agricultural and pacifist. There were some highly developed Bantu states including Buganda in present-day Uganda. Possibly as a reaction to the European encroachments, several additional Bantu states developed in the 19th century, notably the Zulu and the Sotho. Other well-known Bantu tribes include the Ndebele (Matabele) and the Shona.;x
BAS;Basra;x
BAS_DESC;Basra was founded by the Rashidun caliph Umar as a garrison town in 636 AD. During the medieval period it quickly became an important trade nexus between Arabia, Persia and the Red Sea. The Musha'sha', a Shi'a Arab dynasty, was established in 1436 by Muhammad ibn Falah in the town of Hoveyzeh, located in Khuzestan, southwestern Iran. Initially a tribal confederation, the Musha'sha' transformed into a zealous Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty, expanding their influence across western Khuzestan and into Basra. Their rule was marked by religious fervor and military campaigns, often clashing with the Safavid Empire. Despite being subdued by the Safavids in 1508, the Musha'sha' continued to govern as local rulers under Iranian suzerainty until the early 20th century.;x
BAY;Bavaria;x
BAY_DESC;The Duchy of Bavaria was given to the Wittelsbach family, by the Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in 1180. The duchy expanded during the following centuries, especially during the reign of the Emperor Louis IV of Bavaria who gained Brandenburg, Holland, Zeeland, Tyrol, amongst other territories. At his death, the lands are divided among his sons and it is only in 1502 that Albert II managed to reunite Bavaria in the single biggest possession next to the Habsburg's lands in the Empire. With the Reformation, Bavaria remained staunchly Catholic and played a major role in the Thirty Years War. The Duke of Bavaria was rewarded with the title of Elector that had been taken from the rebellious Palatinate. Bavaria was to remain at the center of most of European wars either on the Austrian side or the French one. During the Wars of the French Revolution, Bavaria was an ally of France and was stylized the Kingdom of Bavaria by Napoleon, a title the country would keep until 1871.;x
BEA;Béarn;x
BEA_DESC;Béarn, an historic province in southwestern France, nestled in the Pyrenees, boasts a rich and varied history. Originally inhabited by the Venarni tribe, it became part of the Roman province of Aquitania. Over the centuries, Béarn maintained a degree of autonomy, even as it was absorbed into the Kingdom of France in 1620. Its capital shifted from Beneharnum to Morlaàs, Orthez, and finally Pau. Known for its pastoral traditions and resilient spirit, Béarn has preserved its unique cultural identity, symbolized by its iconic flag featuring two red cows on a golden field.;x
BEI;Brunei;x
BEI_DESC;Although the Majapahit Empire, in Java, noted in 1365 the Brunei was one among their hundred vassals, the area was actually a little more than a trading post. With the fall of the Majapahit Empire, Brunei began to rise, extending on the north coast of Borneo and became a native Sultanate in 1520. It has been said that at one time the sultan controlled nearly all of Borneo, but during the 18th century the sultanate was already declining, faced with the competition of the European powers. By the 19th, century Brunei had become a pirates' nest.;x
BEN;Benin;x
BEN_DESC;The Kingdom of Benin was founded in the 13th century and had its 'Golden Age' between the 14th and the 17th centuries. Power originally belonged to a council of chiefs but overtime was subsumed by the monarchy, to a single king, the Oba. The Oba ruled with the help of a sophisticated bureaucracy when the kingdom became an empire. In the late 15th century, Benin began to trade ivory, pelts, slaves and clothes, to Portugal, for weapons, clothes and spyglasses. In the 16th century, the Oba sent a priest in Portugal and requested missionaries. The rulers of both nations exchanged gifts. Overtime, the empire entered into decline under the pressure of the Yorubas on the west, the Nupes on the north and the British on the coast. The kingdom's exports had been reduced only to palm oil when in the late 19th century, a British expedition destroyed the capital.;x
BGL;Bengal;x
BGL_DESC;Bengal was a Muslim kingdom from the late 12th century, remaining independent from the neighboring kingdoms of Delhi and Bihar. The kingdom extended its rule over parts of Bihar and Assam in the 16th century, the same period that it first encountered Portuguese traders. It was conquered by the Mughal Empire in 1576 and it is only in the 18th century that a new dynasty emerged as Mughal power declined. During the 18th century, the British were given privileges by the Mughal Emperors and the British East India Company put a heavy pressure on Bengal. The British finally seized Bengal in 1764.;x
BIJ;Bijapur;x
BIJ_DESC;Bijapur was one of several sultanates founded upon the demise of the Bahmani sultanate.  Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1490, the sultanate's existence was always in peril. Bounded by rival sultanates (Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Golconda) as well as the Vijayanagar Empire, the Shi'a state formed no lasting alliances. Despite its disadvantages, the sultanate would go on to conquer most of the Deccan plateau, as well as much of what had constituted the northern provinces of the Vijayanagar Empire.  Eventually, Adil Shah dynasty met its end by the swords of Mughal armies under Aurangzeb.;x
BIM;Bima;x
BIM_DESC;The small Hindu kingdom of Bima, on the eastern side of Sumbawa Island in Indonesia, has a shrouded history prior to the 14th century. Though it may well have been a nominal vassal of the Majapahit Empire, it does not seem to have been subject to any interference, and likely survived due to its lucrative trade in slaves and local sappanwood. Islam was spread during the early 17th century by the Gowa (Makassar) sultanate, which soon led to Bima embracing the new religion and becoming a significant regional power. The Dutch East India Company exerted increasing influence over Bima during the 17th century, and following several decisive victories they had integrated the island into their colonial empire by 1670.;x
BJR;Banjar;x
BJR_DESC;Banjar was originally part of the powerful Majapahit Empire, but gained self-rule after the empire fell apart in the late 15th century. The Kingdom converted to Islam in the 17th century, and became a power in Borneo, controlling most of the southern region of the island. Its acceptance of the Dutch, however, would prove to be its downfall, as the Dutch formally integrated Banjar into the Dutch East Indies in the late 19th century.;x
BLI;Bali;x
BLI_DESC;Bali was first settled by Austronesian peoples in around 2000 BC, and over the centuries has absorbed influences from Indian, Chinese, and Javanese cultures - particularly during its period as a Majapahit vassal state (1343-1512). Following the fall of the Majapahit Empire to its Muslim vassal the Demak Sultanate in the 16th century, Bali became a sanctuary for Hindu refugees fleeing the spread of Islam in Java. Despite intermittent periods of civil war and foreign rule, the island's unique blend of Hindu, Buddhist and local animistic traditions has endured.;x
BLV;Bolivia;x
BLV_DESC;Bolivia, a landlocked country in west-central South America, has a rich and tumultuous history. It was once the center of the ancient Tiwanaku Empire and later became part of the Inca Empire in the 15th century. Following the Spanish conquest in the early 16th century, Bolivia was incorporated into the Viceroyalty of Peru, providing immense wealth to Spain through its vast silver minining operation at Potosí. The country gained independence in 1825, named after the revolutionary liberator Simón Bolívar.;x
BOH;Bohemia;x
BOH_DESC;The legendary founders of Bohemia, or Cechy, were Premysl and the princess Libuse of the Czechs, who was told to marry a man she would see building a threshold (Praha) in the middle of the forest. Bohemia became a part of the Holy Roman Empire in 950 but kept internal freedom and still enjoyed the status of kingdom inside the Empire. The Golden Age of Bohemia came with the reign of the Emperor Charles IV (1346-78) who made Praha his residence. Bohemia saw the first serious attempt of religious reformation with the Hussite wars in 1434. The Habsburgs acquired the throne of Bohemia in 1526, beginning the process of assimilation that would end with the Thirty Years War and the full annexation of Bohemia to the lands of Austria.;x
BOL;Bologna;x
BOL_DESC;Bologna is a vibrant city in northern Italy boasting a rich history dating back over 2,500 years. Originally an Etruscan settlement known as Felsina, it was later occupied by the Gallic Boii and became a Roman colony called Bononia around 190 BC. Throughout the Middle Ages, Bologna flourished as a free commune and was home to Europe's oldest university, founded in 1088. The city experienced periods of rule by various lords before being incorporated into the Papal States in 1506. Despite suffering significant damage through the centuries, Bologna has preserved its medieval charm, characterized by its iconic towers and extensive porticoes.;x
BON;Bone;x
BON_DESC;Bone was a pagan kingdom based at Watampone in the south-west of the island of Sulawesi. It remained fairly isolated and resisted conversion for centuries, but traded and fought with neighbouring peoples like the Luwu and Wajo. In 1611, Bone was invaded by armies of the powerful Gowa (Makassar) sultanate to the south, whose sultan forced the king of Bone to convert to Islam. This led to an era of prosperity for Bone but also saw the loss of her independence, and subsequently the island kingdom would be a vassal of Gowa, (briefly) the British, and then the Dutch.;x
BOR;Bornu;x
BOR_DESC;Bornu, an historical kingdom and emirate in northeastern Nigeria, originally served as the southernmost province of the Kanem Empire, which reached its zenith in the 12th and 13th centuries. As Kanem's power waned in the late 14th century, Bornu emerged as a dominant force, eventually recapturing and incorporating Kanem into the reconstituted Kanem-Bornu Empire in the early 16th century. The empire flourished under rulers like Mai Idris Alawma, who reigned from around 1571 to 1603. Despite facing challenges, including the Fulani jihad in 1808 and subsequent conflicts, Bornu maintained its significance until the late 19th century.;x
BOS;Bosnia;x
BOS_DESC;In the early 11th century the Eastern Roman Empire lost its grip on Bosnia, which became a vassal state of Hungary. During the 12th century the rulers of Bosnia started acting independently, which caused subsequent Hungarian raids of the country. The next century saw Bosnia gaining independence from Hungary and enter a period of great territorial expansion. However, In 1419 Bosnia had once more entered a period of decline. Hungarians to the north and the west of the country wanted to regain territories that they had lost during the reign of Bosnian king Tvrtko I, while the Ottoman Empire was rapidly expanding to the east and south of the country. Between 1448 and 1463 Bosnia was swallowed up piecemeal by the Muslim behemoth.;x
BOU;Bourbon;x
BOU_DESC;The counts (later dukes) of Bourbon held Bourbonnais as an apanage until 1527, when Francis I of France confiscated it upon the death of the traitor constable Charles of Bourbon.;x
BRA;Brandenburg;x
BRA_DESC;Brandenburg was originally a northern march for the Holy Roman Empire, bordering pagan lands. The March of Brandenburg was settled by Germans and soon extended greatly under the rule of the houses of Bavaria and of Luxemburg from 1325 to 1415. It was raised to the title of Elector in 1247. In 1415, the Margraviate of Brandenburg was sold to the burgrave of Nuremberg, Frederick, scion of a lower branch of the house of Hohenzollern. Frederick would begin a dynasty whose members would acquire the Ducal Prussia and later become Kings of Prussia, Emperors of Germany.;x
BRE;Bremen;x
BRE_DESC;Bremen was founded in the late 8th or early 9th century and may be the oldest German port city. As an archbishopric, it acted as a departure point for missionaries on their way to Christianize Scandinavia. In the 12th century the bishop's authority was curtailed by Henry the Lion, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, who became the overlord of the city and surrounding areas. The city then became a trading hub - its ships would dominate the southern part of the North Sea until the rise of the Hanseatic League. Bremen initially commissioned privateers against the ships of the League, but in 1358, to prevent an open war, negotiated its entry to the League. Ever a reluctant member of the league, Bremen was finally expelled from it in 1427. Soon the surrounding lords claimed its lands and the city lost most of its power. Bremen accepted the Reformation in 1522 and became a free Imperial city in 1646. It maintained its autonomy despite ceding the archbishopric to Sweden in the Peace of Westphalia.;x
BRG;Berg;x
BRG_DESC;Berg, located in the Rhineland of Germany, was established in 1101 as a county and later elevated to a duchy in 1380. Initially part of the Kingdom of Lotharingia, it emerged as a significant political entity under the rule of the Ezzonen dynasty. The duchy experienced substantial growth and influence, particularly after uniting with the County of Jülich in 1348. Throughout its history, Berg was often involved in regional conflicts and alliances, including its union with the Duchy of Cleves and the County of Mark in the 16th century. The duchy was eventually awarded to Prussia in 1815 following the Napoleonic Wars.;x
BRI;Brittany;x
BRI_DESC;Brittany was an important and semi-autonomous duchy that had been a bone of contention between the English and French crowns ever since it was conquered by Henry I in 1113 and made a part of the 'Angevin Empire'. During the Hundred Years War, the dukes of Montfort tried to secure Brittany's neutrality between France and England. The unsuccessful rebellion of Duke Francis II against the French crown finally led to the absorption of Brittany into France after the accession of his daughter Anne of Brittany in 1488. King Francis I formally incorporated the duchy in 1532.;x
BRM;Burma;x
BRM_DESC;Ava was a Burmese Shan Kingdom that succeeded an earlier Kingdom based on the city of Pagan. The city of Ava was founded in 1364. The location allowed the Shans to control the rice supply from the Kyaukse irrigated area to the south, which became vital after the traditional rice-growing area in southern Myanmar had been lost to a Mon Kingdom. The Kingdom of Ava flourished until it was destroyed by a rival group of Shans in 1527. In 1634 the city became the capital of the Toungoo dynasty which had united the Ava and Toungoo Kingdoms in 1531.;x
BRU;Brunswick;x
BRU_DESC;The Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, established in 1235, was a significant principality within the Holy Roman Empire, located in what is now northern Germany. It originated when Otto the Child, a member of the House of Welf, was granted the duchy by Emperor Frederick II. The duchy was named after its two main centers, Brunswick and Lüneburg, and experienced numerous partitions and reunifications over the centuries - primarily its elevation to the Electorate of Hanover in 1692. Despite these changes, it remained a cohesive entity until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. The duchy's legacy continued through its successor states, the Kingdom of Hanover and the Duchy of Brunswick, established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.;x
BRZ;Brazil;x
BRZ_DESC;It was Pedro Alvarez Cabral who officially claimed Brazil for the Portugal in 1500. It is probable that others Portuguese sailors had already discovered these lands and at least one Spanish sailor, Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, did so. Brazil was part of the Portuguese share of the Treaty of Tordesillas, although it was sparsely settled until the 17th century. Despite French and Dutch attempts to take control of Brazil, Portugal managed to maintain its authority. The nation gained its independence in 1822, already rich in population and raw materials.;x
BST;Bastar;x
BST_DESC;The Kingdom of Bastar, located in present-day Chhattisgarh, India, was founded in 1324 AD by Annama Deva - a brother of the last Kakatiya king, Pratapa Rudra Deva - on the instruction of the local goddess Danteshwari. Bastar was known for its rich tribal culture and dense forests, and its capital Jagdalpur is still famed for its beautiful scenic waterfalls. Fiercely independent, the Rajas of Bastar resisted foreign incursion until eventually falling under Maratha suzerainty in the late 18th century. With the rise of the British Raj, Bastar became a princely state in 1803, and joined the Union of India in 1948.;x
BTN;Banten;x
BTN_DESC;Banten was a Muslim sultanate among Hindu kingdoms in the island of Java. Its port was directly in front of the Sunda Straits, which allowed it to control trade in the area. The sultanate was already a Muslim state when Marco Polo visited in the 13th century. In 1526, the sultanate allied itself with the Sultanate of Demak to expand in Java. The initial enterprise failed, as neighboring Hindu states allied themselves with the Portuguese, who controlled Malacca, however, in the long term, the Muslims eventually prevailed. In the 16th century, the sultanate flourished thanks to the lucrative pepper trade. But by 1596, the Dutch had arrived in Banten and in 1603 the British settle with a permanent trading post. The Dutch eventually prevailed and they annexed the Sultanate in 1813.;x
BUK;Bukhara;x
BUK_DESC;The Khanate of Bukhara, an Uzbek state in Central Asia, existed from 1501 to 1785. Founded by the Abu'l-Khayrid dynasty, a branch of the Shaybanids, it initially had its capital in Samarkand before moving to Bukhara. The khanate reached its zenith under Abdullah Khan II in the late 16th century, encompassing much of Central Asia. In the 17th and 18th centuries, it was ruled by the Janid dynasty until it was conquered by Nader Shah of Persia in 1740. Following Nader Shah's death, the Manghit dynasty took control, eventually transforming the khanate into the Emirate of Bukhara in 1785.;x
BUL;Bulgaria;x
BUL_DESC;The history of the Bulgarians begins in the 7th century, when a group of tribes of Turk-Altaic origin established a Kingdom in the old Roman province of Thracia. At its height the Bulgarian Kingdom rivaled the Byzantine Empire, but it fell into decline in the 10th century and was eventually conquered by the Byzantines in 1018. Although the Bulgars successfully revolted in 1185 and established a new kingdom, they never quite managed to regain their former power. Weakened by Tatar incursions and internal strife, the last independent Bulgarian Kingdom fell to the Ottomans in 1396. Although there were numerous uprisings over the next centuries Bulgaria did not regain her independence until 1878.;x
BUR;Burgundy;x
BUR_DESC;John II of France gave the duchy of Burgundy to his son Philip the Bold in 1361. The line of Valois-Bourgogne thrived and greatly expanded Burgundy, gaining Franche-Comté and Flanders under Philip and his son John the Fearless, who was assassinated in 1419. Burgundy played a major role in the Hundred Years War, siding with England until the Peace of Arras in 1435. By the time of Charles the Bold's death in 1477 Burgundy had expanded by marriage and conquest to include most of the Netherlands and north-eastern France. Killed on the field of battle at Nancy, most of Charles' lands came under the control of Maximillian I of Habsburg, save Picardie and the Duchy of Burgundy itself, which were French fiefs and thus reverted to the French crown.;x
BUT;Buton;x
BUT_DESC;The island Kingdom of Buton was founded by migrants from Johor who established a Hindu state in the late 14th century. While often dominated by greater powers, it survived and even thrived well into the 20th century.;x
BYZ;Byzantium;x
BYZ_DESC;The Eastern Roman Empire was founded around 330 when Emperor Constantine transferred his capital from Nicomedia in Anatolia to the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. From its capital, the Empire oversaw a thousand years of various glories.  No longer the seat of a powerful empire, Constantinople had been taken several times, notably in 1204 when the fourth Crusade created the Latin Empire and in 1261 when the Greek Michael VIII took it back. The empire came to an end in 1453 when the Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople. Impoverished and looted, the city recovered fast, becoming the seat of the new Muslim empire.;x
CAL;Caliphate;x
CAL_DESC;The Caliph was the heir of Muhammad and the political and religious head of Islam. The title was instituted after Muhammad's death and the dispute for power that caused the Islamic schism between Sunni and Shi'a. Under the Omeya Caliphs and later the Abassides, the Caliphate was taken to the height of its power, spanning from Spain to Persia. In 1258 the Mongols took Baghdad and slaughtered its population, marking the definitive end to the already decadent Caliphate. However, the dream of a reunited Islamic Empire was far from dead and several Muslim nations attempted to revive it - the Ottoman Empire being the only power that almost achieved it.;x
CAM;Cambodia;x
CAM_DESC;In 1419 Cambodia was a part of the mighty but waning Khmer Empire that lasted until 1431 when the capital city of Angkor was sacked by an invading Thai army. Much of her history up until that point had seen the country wedged between the empires of Ayutthaya and Dai Viet, forcing her to side with one country against the other for survival. From 1432 to 1859 Cambodia entered a dark age from which few historical records have survived. Prior to that, under the Khmer rulers, Cambodia enjoyed an unparalleled period of prosperity that saw the construction of the great temples of Angkor Wat and Bayon and fantastic sculptures like the Aspara.;x
CAN;Candar;x
CAN_DESC;Candar was established in the closing years of the 13th century by Yaman Candar - a chieftain of the Turkic tribes who had settled the northwestern Black Sea coasts of Asia Minor. Vassalized but never annexed by the Ottomans before the arrival of Timur in Anatolia, Candar regained much of its lost territory when pretenders to the Ottoman throne engaged in a civil war that lasted for eleven years. However, despite the best military and diplomatic efforts of Isfendiyar Beg, Ottoman forces finally conquered the Candar state in 1462.;x
CAS;Castile;x
CAS_DESC;The Castilian kingdom started its existence as a rebellious duchy of the older Christian kingdom of León in the 9th century. However, the dynastic marriages and the need for a united front against the Moors soon united the two kingdoms again and in the 13th century that union was made permanent. The Reconquista against the Moors culminated with the battle of the Navas de Tolosa (1212) that crushed the Almohade Empire soon after the biggest cities of Al-Andalus (Cordoba, Seville) were conquered, leaving the little vassal kingdom of Granada as the last vestige of Muslim presence in Iberia. The practical end of the fight against the Moors meant that there was a big and rebellious aristocracy with too much time on their hands, and Castile was plagued by chronic instability during the 14th and 15th centuries. Castile's internal strife continued unabated until a civil war erupted between the partisans of princess Juana (supported by the Portuguese) and those of her sister Isabella (married to Fernando de Aragón and backed by the Aragonese), at the death of King Enrique IV. The victory of the latter faction resulted in the union of the Castilian and Aragonese kingdoms as the new kingdom of Spain.;x
CAT;Catalonia;x
CAT_DESC;The 'Marca Hispanica' had been part of the Carolingian Empire as a protection against the Moors of Spain since 800. The grateful Carolingian Emperor relieved the Count of Barcelona from his vassalage in 988, and thus Catalunya was born. Catalunya merged with the Kingdom of Aragon in 1137, creating the political entity that would become a superpower in the Mediterranean during the 14th century. In 1412 the last Catalan King died heirless and the electors of the non-Catalan lands voted to elect a Castillian king against the Catalan candidate. Catalunya lost its primacy inside the Crown of Aragon as the new Castillian dynasty drifted the kingdom more and more towards a merging with Castile.;x
CEL;Celje;x
CEL_DESC;Celje, a city in central Slovenia, has a rich history dating back to Roman times when it was known as Claudia Celeia. It became an important medieval center under the Counts of Celje, who ruled from the 14th to the 15th century and maintained close relations with - and at times served as vassals of - the rulers of Austria and Hungary. The city flourished as a cultural and economic hub, with significant landmarks like the Celje Castle, which remains a prominent historical site. Despite suffering damage during various conflicts, Celje has preserved its historical charm and continues to be a vital cultural center in Slovenia.;x
CHA;Champa;x
CHA_DESC;Champa was the kingdom of the Chams, a people living in what is now the central Vietnam, who were strongly influenced by Indian cultures. In the 2nd century, following the fall of the Chinese Han Empire, the first Kingdom of Champa emerged, surviving mainly on the sea trade and piracy. The Kingdom quickly came into conflict with the Khmers in the south and west, and starting in the 11th century, began feuiding with the kingdom of Dai Viet which encroached on its northern border. Champa fared poorly at the hands of its neighbors and the kingdom was finally dismembered in the late 15th century. The remnants of the kingdom survived until the 17th century when a final Vietnamese offensive forced the Chams to scatter in Cambodia.;x
CHE;Cherokee;x
CHE_DESC;The Cherokee Indians settled along the Tennessee River millennia before Europeans arrived in North America. Connecting a network of villages by roads and streams through mountain gaps, the Cherokee nation traded prosperously with other tribes of the Mississippi River system. In 1540 the Spaniard Hernando De Soto encountered the Cherokee while searching for gold. For the next two centuries most of the Cherokees' contact with Europeans was friendly, until 1715 when the combined tribes of the area launched a war against the South Carolina colony. Alternately allying with the French and English the Cherokee were eventually decimated by disease and war.;x
CHG;Chagatai;x
CHG_DESC;Chagatai Khanate was the part of the Mongol Empire originally designated for the younger son of Gengis Khan after his death in 1227, when his older brother Ogodei became Great Khan. Chagatai's part was situated in Central Asia and was mainly populated by Turkish people. While the Mongols maintained a nomadic culture, they soon intermarried and by the end of the 14th century the local Turkish language was named Chagatai. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the Chagatai Khanate was one four Mongol Khanates (China, Persia, Russia and Central Asia). The Chagatai Khanate split in the 1330s and 1340s into a western, later ruled by Timur, and an eastern khanate that held close to Mongol traditions. The latter would survive until the 17th century when it was annexed by Dzungar tribes.;x
CHI;China;x
CHI_DESC;Even before the blood had dried on the rebellion of Zhu Yuanzhang, the Han Chinese of the Ming Dynasty began to make the might of the Middle Kingdom known to the rest of East Asia. In 1398 Korea become a puppet to the Chinese government and soon afterwards Dai Viet fell to Ming troops. Zheng He made his glorious voyages, discovering faraway lands in Africa and Arabia. Emperor Cheng Zu, a usurper, came to the throne early in the 15th century. A cruel but able administrator, Cheng Zu established an absolute rule over the Empire, and by 1419 the Ming had reached a new age of might and glory.;x
CHL;Chile;x
CHL_DESC;Chile, a long, narrow country stretching along the western edge of South America, has a rich and diverse history. Originally inhabited by indigenous peoples such as the Mapuche, it was later incorporated into the Inca Empire in the 15th century. Spanish conquistadors, led by Pedro de Valdivia, began colonizing the region in the mid-16th century. Chile declared its independence from Spain in 1818, and over the 19th and 20th centuries, it developed into a relatively stable republic.;x
CHM;Chimú;x
CHM_DESC;A people heavily influenced by the Tiahuanaco culture, the Chimu rose to power in modern-day Peru around 1200. They were urban dwellers that built magnificent cities, had a powerful military and a complex social system. They remained a great power in the region until they were finally absorbed by the Inca Empire in 1460.;x
CHO;Chola Empire;x
CHO_DESC;The Chola Empire, originating in the fertile Kaveri River valley in southern India, was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in history, flourishing from the 9th to the 13th centuries AD. At its zenith, the Chola Empire extended its influence over much of South India, Sri Lanka, and even parts of Southeast Asia, including the Malay Peninsula. Renowned for their naval prowess, the Cholas were instrumental in promoting trade and cultural exchange across the Indian Ocean. Under the reigns of illustrious rulers like Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the empire saw remarkable achievements in architecture, literature, and administration. The construction of grand monuments like the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur are a testament to their legacy.;x
CIR;Circassia;x
CIR_DESC;Circassia, located along the northeastern shore of the Black Sea, has a history marked by its strategic, cultural and religious importance. From ancient times, it was home to the Circassian people, who developed a distinct language and culture. The region was known for its fierce independence and resistance to external domination, and for centuries forged a careful network of alliances with neighboring Byzantine, Georgian and Tatar realms. However, during the Russo-Circassian War (1763-1864), Circassia was conquered by the Russian Empire. Despite these hardships, the unique Circassian identity and heritage endured.;x
CLC;Calicut;x
CLC_DESC;The State of Calicut, ruled by an ambitious dynasty known as the Samoothiris (Samorins to Europeans) came to control the bulk of India's Malabar coastline during a series of expansionist wars in the 14th and early 15th centuries. Europe would gain its first holdings in India by expoliting Calicut's envious vassal states, but the efforts of the Samoothiri to thwart European aims would be a major stumbling block for the earliest colonizers of India.;x
CMG;Champagne;x
CMG_DESC;Champagne, located in northeastern France, dates back to the 5th century when the Romans first planted vineyards there. Its main cities are Reims and Troyes, and for much of the medieval era it was the hereditary powerbase of the influential Blesevin dynasty. Initially known for its still wines, Champagne evolved over centuries into the world-renowned sparkling wine celebrated today. This transformation is often credited to the 17th-century innovations of Dom Pérignon, a Benedictine monk who perfected the méthode champenoise. The region's wines gained international acclaim, particularly after being featured at the coronation banquets of the French kings in Reims.;x
CMP;Champassak;x
CMP_DESC;Champassak, a province in southwestern Laos, dates back to ancient times. It was part of the Funan and Chenla Kingdoms from the 1st to 9th centuries AD and later became a significant region within the Khmer Empire. In 1354, it was incorporated into the Lan Xang Empire under King Fa Ngum. Following the decline of Lan Xang, Champassak emerged (along with Vientiane and Luang Prabang) as one of three successor kingdoms in 1707. The Kingdom of Champassak maintained its autonomy until it became a vassal state of Siam in 1778 and was eventually annexed by the French in 1904.;x
CNW;Cornwall;x
CNW_DESC;Cornwall, located in the southwestern tip of England, was initially inhabited by the Celtic tribe of the Dumnonii, and later became part of the Roman Empire before reverting to independent Romano-British rule. Throughout the Middle Ages, Cornwall maintained a distinct cultural identity, often clashing with neighboring Wessex. The creation of the Duchy of Cornwall in 1337 solidified its unique status within England. Known for its tin mining industry, which peaked during the Industrial Revolution, Cornwall also experienced significant emigration, leading to a global Cornish diaspora.;x
CNY;Canary Islands;x
CNY_DESC;The Canary Islands, an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of Africa, were initially settled by the pagan Guanches, an indigenous Berber people who became cut-off from the mainland millennia ago. The islands were later explored by the Phoenicians and Romans, and by the early 15th century the Spanish had begun their conquest under the French explorer Jean de Béthencourt. In 1496 the islands were declared fully subjugated, and were incorporated into the Kingdom of Castile. For centuries, the Canaries were a crucial stopover for Spanish galleons en route to the Americas, fostering a blend of cultures.;x
COC;Cochin;x
COC_DESC;A small principality dominated by neighboring Calicut, Cochin gained historical importance by using Portuguese aid in breaking free of Calicut's dominance, thereby providing Europe's first toehold in India.;x
COL;Colombia;x
COL_DESC;Colombia, located in northwestern South America, was originally inhabited by various indigenous groups, including the Chibcha, who had established advanced societies by the time the Spanish arrived in 1499. The Spanish colonization led to the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, with Bogotá as its capital. Colombia gained independence from Spain in 1819, becoming part of the Republic of Gran Colombia, which dissolved in 1830.;x
CON;Connacht;x
CON_DESC;Connaught was the westernmost Irish kingdom. Traditional quarrels between the Irish kingdoms were interrupted in the late 12th century by the settlements of Anglo-Normans lords, who encouraged by Henry II of England, dethroned the king of Leinster. The Irish lords were gradually replaced by English nobility. Henry III granted the lands of Connaught to the Norman baron Richard de Burgh (or de Burgo) whose family would held the lordship of Connaught from then on.;x
COR;Corsica;x
COR_DESC;After centuries of conquest and rule by various invaders including Ostrogoths, Vandals, Byzantines, Lombards and Saracens, Corsica was entrusted to the city of Pisa by Pope Gregorious VII in 1077. In 1284 the island was taken by Genoa, the arch rival of Pisa, and held for five hundred years. The island suffered invasions from the Aragonese and the French during the Genoese occupation and underwent countless insurrections from the disgruntled population. In the 1600s they were a constant target of pirate raids from the Barbary Coast. In 1768 the Genoese sold the island to France, which soon lost it to the British (1794).;x
CRD;Córdoba;x
CRD_DESC;The Caliphate of Córdoba, established in 929 by Abd al-Rahman III, marked a golden age for Muslim Spain, known as Al-Andalus. This period saw Córdoba become one of the most advanced cities in Europe, renowned for its cultural, economic, and intellectual achievements. The Caliphate fostered a flourishing of arts, science, and architecture, exemplified by the Great Mosque of Córdoba. However, internal strife and political fragmentation led to its decline, culminating in its disintegration into smaller taifa kingdoms by 1031.;x
CRE;Creek;x
CRE_DESC;The Cree, a confederacy of many Muskogean-speaking tribes and villages, were named so by the English for the countless waterways crossing their territory in what is now Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina. Primarily hunter-gatherers, the Cree people thrived on commerce and thus welcomed the first Europeans, trading deer pelts for firearms. By the early 1700s however, the Cree were being displaced by English settlers. Battles with whites and other Indians continued sporadically until the American General Andrew Jackson, known to the Cree as 'Sharp Knife', destroyed the Cree chieftain Red Eagle and his main force of warriors at the Tallapoosa River in 1814.;x
CRG;Chernigov;x
CRG_DESC;Chernigov, also known as Chernihiv, is one of the oldest cities in Ukraine, with archaeological evidence suggesting its origins date back to the 7th century. First mentioned in the Rus'-Byzantine Treaty of 907, it became a prominent center in the Kievan Rus' and the capital of the Principality of Chernigov. The city flourished during the 10th and 11th centuries, known for its impressive cathedrals, such as the Transfiguration Cathedral, built in 1036. Despite suffering from the Tatar invasion in the 13th century, Chernigov remained an important regional trade hub.;x
CRI;Crimea;x
CRI_DESC;From the 13th century, Crimea was the gate to the Orient trade. Although the Byzantine Empire had been expelled by the nomadic tribes, Venice and later Genoa settled trading posts in the Crimea peninsula. The Genoans were expelled in 1430 by the establishment of a khanate of Crimea. Many succession struggles threatened the stability of the newly formed khanate and in the late 15th century, the Tatars asked for the protection of the Turkish Ottomans. The Ottomans were the first to call the peninsula 'Crimea'. The khanate remained powerful enough to block the Russian access to the Black Sea for quite some time until it was finally annexed in 1783, marking the start of a period of slaughter and deportation of the Tatar population.;x
CRO;Croatia;x
CRO_DESC;Upon the death of the last heir of the crown of Croatia, in 1090, and facing internecine strife, the lords of Croatia elected King Ladislaus I of Hungary to be King of Croatia. This established a personal union of Croatia and Hungary under the Hungarian monarch. For the next four centuries, the king of Hungary attempted to limit the power of the local Croatian feudal lords while allowing some autonomy to Croatia. The land had its own diet and was governed by a Ban, or Viceroy. With the Ottoman invasion of Europe, Croatia became a border land until the battle of Mohacs in 1526 which resulted in the annexation of most of Croatia by the Ottomans. With the fall of Hungary, the Croatian feudal lords accepted the Habsburgs as their overlords. In exchange for providing soldiers for the Habsburg armies, Croatia gained some autonomy and privileges.;x
CUB;Cuba;x
CUB_DESC;Cuba, the largest island in the Caribbean, has a rich and tumultuous history. Originally inhabited by the Taíno people, it was claimed by Christopher Columbus for Spain in 1492. The island became a crucial part of the Spanish Empire, particularly for its sugar production. Following a series of independence wars, Cuba gained formal independence from Spain in 1898, only to fall under American influence.;x
CYP;Cyprus;x
CYP_DESC;The Island Kingdom of Cyprus, once a Roman province, was placed under the control of crusading knights by Richard the Lionheart in 1192, during the third crusade. The crusaders couldn't keep peace on the island so they sold it to the king of Jerusalem. Cyprus and Jerusalem shared royal house until 1359, when Islam finally forced the last Christian king out of the Holy Land. Cyprus was a land of serfs, so the king incited French nobles to come and help improve the domestic infrastructure. In 1489 Queen Caterina Cornero married into the Venetian nobility and Cyprus became another Venetian holding.;x
CYR;Cyrenaica;x
CYR_DESC;Cyrenaica was an ancient Roman desert province bordering the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. It was conquered by the Arab armies in 642 and lightly settled by them between the 9th and 11th centuries. The 15th century saw the climate improve, allowing another wave of settlement, this time, from Mamluk Egypt. The area fell under Ottoman control in 1517.;x
DAH;Dahomey;x
DAH_DESC;In the early 17th century, a quarrel between three brothers with a right to the throne of Great Ardra led to one retaining that small nation and the other two forging their own. One of these was Dahomey, centered around the town of Abomey, while the other was Ajatche (called Porto Novo by the Portuguese). By the end of the century Dahomey was in control of the slave trade on the Bight of Benin. Using their remarkable female soldiers (called Amazons by outsiders) the kingdom grew rapidly in all directions.;x
DAI;Dai Viet;x
DAI_DESC;The people of what is now Vietnam, but was then scornfully labeled 'Annam' by the Chinese overlords, finally drove out the occupiers in 939 and renamed their country Dai Co Viet and later Dai Viet. It remained independent except for another brief period of Chinese occupation from 1407-1428. In 1558 Dai Viet found itself divided between two great families: the Trinh and the Nguyens. The Trinh ruled from Tonkin (present-day Hanoi) as far south as Porte d'Annam. The Europeans called this area Tonkin when they arrived in the 1600s. The Nguyens ruled from the city of Hue over territory that extended south from Porte d'Annam to Quy Nhon. In 1802 the two halves, Tonkin-Dai Viet and Annam-Dai Viet, were united by Nguyen-Anh and renamed Vietnam.;x
DAK;Dakota;x
DAK_DESC;The Dakota Sioux lived west of the northern Mississippi River. During the summer they roamed vast areas of the Great Plains, often traveling as far as the hot springs of Arkansas to gather with other Indians and share the healing waters. After the arrival of Europeans the horse became the most valuable commodity of the Dakota. Skilled artisans and weavers, the Sioux also thrived off trade with other tribes and Europeans. The image of the blanket-wrapped painted Indian upon his horse was born in this era. In 1701 the Dakota attended the gathering of tribes initiated by the governors of New France. After a century of varying alliances and wars the Sioux sided with Tecumseh of the Shawnee and fought with the British in the War of 1812, winning huge victories at first, only to be squandered by the British. The decades that followed saw the demise of the Sioux, highlighted by the massacre at Wounded Knee in 1889.;x
DAL;Dalmatia;x
DAL_DESC;The history of Dalmatia, along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, dates back to around 1000 BC when it was inhabited by the Illyrian tribes, including the Delmatae, from whom the region gets its name. The Greeks began colonizing the area in the 4th century BC, establishing cities like Issa (Vis) and Pharos (Hvar). Conquered by the Romans in the 2nd century BC, Dalmatia became a Roman province. Over the centuries, it saw numerous rulers, including the Byzantines, Venetians, and the Habsburgs. The region's strategic location made it a contested territory, leading to a diverse cultural heritage.;x
DAN;Denmark;x
DAN_DESC;One of the oldest kingdoms in Europe, Denmark has its roots in the little known age prior to the Viking era. Its destiny was always intertwined with those of its brother nations of Norway and Sweden, and the three kingdoms sometimes allied and sometimes bitterly fought each other. In 1419, Denmark was the dominant kingdom and a Danish king ruled over all three in the 'Union of Kalmar'. In 1448 Christian I became king and established on the Danish throne the house of Oldenburg. In 1460, he incorporated Schleswig and Holstein into the Danish crown. Denmark was now at the apex of its power, rivaling the days of King Canute (Knut), but the malcontents in Sweden were already causing much grief. When Sweden finally broke away from the union in 1523, Denmark was still the most powerful realm in the North, getting rich off the Sound due, but the balance of power was to shift during the coming century. The two nations fought innumerable wars with varying outcomes, until Denmark finally got demolished by Charles X of Sweden in 1658, who, with his veterans from the 30 years war forced Denmark to cede almost half its territory to Sweden. Charles shortly renewed the war, and Denmark came within a hairsbreadth of being absorbed into the Swedish Great Power, but escaped that fate by heroically defending Copenhagen (and thanks to the help of England and the Netherlands). An serious attempt was made to gain the lost territory back in 1676, but the plans were thwarted at the battle of Lund on Dec 4th. The battle lasted for 20 hours and was the bloodiest in Scandinavian history - even worse than the battle of Poltava. Of the 18,000 participants, about half fell and many more were wounded. Denmark now entered a period of decline, but so did Sweden a few decades later.;x
DAU;Dauphiné;x
DAU_DESC;The Dauphiné is an historic region in southeastern France that was originally part of the Kingdom of Arles and later a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. It emerged as a distinct entity in the 11th century under the rule of the Counts of Albon, who adopted the title 'Dauphin' (French for 'dolphin') and ruled from Grenoble. In 1349, the Dauphiné was sold to the future King Charles V of France on the condition that the heir to the French throne would be titled 'Dauphin' - a tradition that endured until 1830. Mountainous, anarchic and difficult to administer, the Dauphiné was effectively semi-independent until Louis XI finally integrated it into the French crown in 1456.;x
DEL;Delaware;x
DEL_DESC;The Delaware were an Algonquin-speaking people who originally inhabited the Delaware River Valley. The name was given to them by the English when they named the bay after Sir Thomas West, Third Lord de la Warr. The name stuck. The Delaware called themselves Lenape which meant 'original people', and many Algonquins viewed them as the original tribe of all Algonquin-speaking people. Their society was a loosely based collection of agricultural villages ruled by a tribal council composed of three sachems or leaders. Their first contact with Europeans was in 1524, and distrust was quickly sown. Much of their subsequent history was one of warfare against the Susquehannock and later the Iroquois. In 1633 they contracted small-pox, which in addition to the wars halved their population.;x
DES;Desmond;x
DES_DESC;The Kingdom of Desmond, meaning 'South Munster' in Irish, was established in 1118 by Tadhg Mac Cárthaigh following the Treaty of Glanmire, which divided the Kingdom of Munster into Desmond and Thomond. Located in what is now County Cork and most of County Kerry, Desmond was ruled by the MacCarthy dynasty. Despite the Norman invasion of the late 12th century, which led to the creation of the Earldom of Desmond in the eastern part, the western half remained a semi-independent Gaelic kingdom. The kingdom persisted until 1596, when it was fully integrated into the Kingdom of Ireland following the Nine Years' War.;x
DLH;Delhi;x
DLH_DESC;In the late 12th century, the armies of the Muslim Afghan leader Muhammad Ghûri crushed the Hindu kingdoms in northern India. Delhi was conquered in 1192 and became the seat of a Muslim sultanate. The sultanate was to successfully fend off invasions by the Mongols and the Rajputs before falling to the armies of Timur in 1399. The conquest initiated a period of decline and the last of the Sultans felt before Bâbur, who founded the Mughal Empire in 1526, on the remains of the Sultanate of Delhi.;x
DLI;Dali;x
DLI_DESC;The Dali Kingdom, established in 937 by Duan Siping, was a Bai-dominated state in present-day Yunnan Province, China. It succeeded the Nanzhao Kingdom and became a significant regional power, known for its strategic location on trade routes connecting China with Southeast Asia and India. The kingdom was notable for its long duration, lasting until 1253 when it was conquered by the Mongol Empire. Despite the conquest, members of the former ruling house continued to administer the area as tusi chiefs under the Yuan dynasty until the Ming conquest of Yunnan in 1382. The Dali Kingdom is remembered for its cultural and religious influence, particularly in spreading Buddhism throughout the region.;x
DOB;Dobruja;x
DOB_DESC;The Despotate of Dobruja, also known as the Principality of Karvuna, was a quasi-independent Bulgarian polity that emerged in the mid-14th century. It was established by Balik and later ruled by his son Dobrotitsa, who expanded its territory and influence. The Despotate maintained a degree of autonomy from the Second Bulgarian Empire and was heavily influenced by Byzantine and Vlach attempts to resist further Ottoman expansion into Europe. Its capital was initially Karvuna (modern-day Balchik) before moving to Kaliakra. The Despotate had its own navy and engaged in piracy, which led to conflicts with Genoa. It existed until 1411 when it was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire.;x
DUL;Dulkadir;x
DUL_DESC;A large independent Turkish principality in south-eastern Asia Minor, the Beylik of Dulkadir fought against both the Timurids and the Mamluks and was largely unsuccessful against both. A buffer state between stronger nations, the Dulkadirs passed from the world stage in 1522 when they were finally absorbed by the Ottomans.;x
ECU;Ecuador;x
ECU_DESC;Ecuador, located in northwestern South America, was originally inhabited by various indigenous groups, including the Valdivia culture, one of the oldest in the Americas. In the 15th century, it became part of the Inca Empire before being conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century. Ecuador gained independence from Spain in 1822 and initially joined Gran Colombia before becoming a sovereign republic in 1830. The country has since experienced periods of political instability and economic challenges but remains known for its incredible biodiversity and cultural heritage, in particular due to its control over the Galápagos Islands.;x
EDE;Edessa;x
EDE_DESC;The County of Edessa, established in 1098 during the First Crusade, was the first Crusader state in the Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. Its capital was the city of Edessa (modern-day Sanliurfa, Turkey), and it played a crucial role as a buffer state against Muslim forces. Founded by Baldwin of Boulogne, who later became the King of Jerusalem, the county was unique among Crusader states for being landlocked and geographically isolated. Despite its strategic importance, Edessa fell to the Muslim leader Zengi in 1144, marking the first major Crusader defeat and prompting the Second Crusade.;x
EGY;Egypt;x
EGY_DESC;Egypt's birth as a modern state can be traced to Muhammad Ali's rule from 1805 to 1848, during which Egypt experienced a transformative era of modernization and reform. Appointed as the Ottoman wali (viceroy) of Egypt, Muhammad Ali initiated significant changes to modernize the country's military, administration and economy. He initiated a violent purge of the Mamluks, consolidating his family's rule and permanently ending the Mamluks' centuries-long dominance over Egypt. Following this, Muhammad Ali implemented a series of reforms, including the creation of a powerful standing army, the establishment of state monopolies on key industries like cotton and textiles, and the introduction of European-style institutions and education. His policies aimed to reduce Egypt's dependence on the declining Ottoman Empire and strengthen his own rule. However, these reforms often came at a high cost to the Egyptian population, involving forced labor and heavy taxation. Despite this, Muhammad Ali's rule left a lasting impact on Egypt and is considered a pivotal period in the country's history as it confirmed its independent statehood and set the stage for modernization.;x
EIR;Ireland;x
EIR_DESC;Éire, the Emerald Island, had a long and mysterious history in the legendary times preceding the Christian era. When the Vikings began their bloody raids all over northern Europe, they came to fancy Ireland so much that many of them stayed there, settling down chiefly in the Dublin region (which was ruled by a Norse king). The Irish problems did not end with the Vikings however, as the island was invaded by the Normans from England in the 12th century. Ireland remained an English vassal, if usually a rebellious one, until well into the 20th century, even if the attempts by the English kings in the 16h and 17th centuries to enforce Protestantism sparked several serious rebellions that could have resulted in freedom for the Green Island.;x
ENG;England;x
ENG_DESC;The Norman Invasion of England in 1066 is one of the most important events in English History. The Norman lords built castles, instituted laws and organized a feudal system, which, while oppressive, was more in line with continental Europe. Their ties with Normandy and France also brought England into the highlight from having been little more than a Danish playground. In 1419, England was ruled by the Lancaster king Henry V, a very able man who, had he lived longer, might very well have become the ruler of a united France and England. However, he died in 1422, and England soon started to lose its grip on France, having lost everything but Calais by 1453. The War of the Roses followed, fought between House Lancaster and York, ending only with the death of Richard III at Bosworth field in 1485. The Tudors ruled England from 1485 to 1603 - a period that saw the Reformation under Henry VIII and a golden age under Queen Elizabeth I. Then came the Stuart kings and the Civil War between Parliamentarians and Royalists that started in 1642 and ended only when Charles I was beheaded on Jan. 30,1649, at the order of the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell's death in 1658 initiated the collapse of his strange new rule and Charles II was restored to power in 1660. The Stuarts were followed by the House of Hanover in 1714, uniting England with the German Electorate. From this time onward, England's power grew explosively, seeing great expansion of the navy, trade and colonial involvement.;x
EPI;Epirus;x
EPI_DESC;The Despotate of Epirus was a Byzantine Greek successor state established in 1204 by Michael I Komnenos Doukas following the Fourth Crusade's capture of Constantinople. Initially one of the most powerful Byzantine successor states, it briefly expanded to include parts of Macedonia and Thessaly. However, after the Battle of Klokotnitsa in 1230, its influence waned, and it was eventually reduced to its core territories in Epirus and Thessaly. Despite periods of vassalage and internal strife, the Despotate maintained its autonomy until it was absorbed by the restored Byzantine Empire in 1337. The region experienced a brief resurgence under Carlo I Tocco in the 15th century before falling to the Ottoman Empire in 1479.;x
ETH;Ethiopia;x
ETH_DESC;Legend states that the Ethiopian royal line comes from the son of King Solomon and Queen of Sheba in the Bible. Isolated for many centuries after the decline of the Roman Empire, Ethiopia remained Christian, and the Europeans thought they had found the mythical kingdom of Prester John in Ethiopia in the 16th century, which would help the Catholics destroy the Muslims forever and gain the Holy Land back. However, the ancient Ethiopian Empire was always on the defensive by 1419 and continued to fight for its life when in 1535 Portuguese explorers helped out with new technology to beat the Muslims back. The Catholic Europeans, however, were ultimately rejected by the Coptic Ethiopian rulers. Ethiopia amazingly survived well past 1820 - perhaps a miracle surpassing its own mythical origins.;x
FAR;Fars;x
FAR_DESC;Fars, a region in south-central Iran, is historically significant as the heartland of the ancient Persian Empire. Known as Pars or Persis in antiquity, it was the birthplace of the Achaemenid Empire founded by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC. The region's capital, Pasargadae, and later Persepolis, served as the empire's political and ceremonial centers. Fars continued to be a crucial area under subsequent empires, including the Seleucids, Parthians, and Sassanids. The region's historical importance persisted into the Islamic period and beyond, with its cultural and architectural heritage still evident today.;x
FAT;Fatimids;x
FAT_DESC;The Fatimid Caliphate, established in 909 AD by Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, was an Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty that ruled over a vast region stretching from North Africa to the Middle East. Originating in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia), the Fatimids expanded their influence, eventually conquering Egypt in 969 AD and founding the city of Cairo, which became the Caliphate's capital. The Fatimid period is noted for its cultural and intellectual achievements, as well as its relative religious tolerance towards non-Shi'a Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Despite internal instability and foreign invasion, the Caliphate lasted until 1171, when it was overthrown by Saladin, leading to the establishment of the Ayyubid dynasty.;x
FER;Ferrara;x
FER_DESC;Ferrara, located in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy, has a rich history dating back to at least 753 AD when it was captured by the Lombards. It became an independent commune by the 10th century and flourished under the rule of the Este family from 1240 to 1598. During this period, Ferrara became a significant cultural and artistic center, attracting leading Renaissance artists and intellectuals. The city's historic center, dominated by the impressive Castello Estense and the Gothic Cathedral of San Giorgio, reflects its medieval and Renaissance heritage.;x
FEZ;Fez;x
FEZ_DESC;Fez was founded in the late 8th century in northern Morocco. It became a capital for several dynasties, due to its location at the crossroads of several trade roads and the abundance raw materials available. The city flourished during the Merinids dynasty in the 14th and 15th centuries and in 1475 became the capital of the kingdom of Fez. The kingdom had to deal with the Portuguese ambitions in North Africa, the Spanish war against Granada, the subsequent migrations of Muslims and Jews, and later with the growing power of Marrakech.;x
FIN;Finland;x
FIN_DESC;From the mid-11th century Christian missionaries from Sweden were active in Finland, and in 1249 the Swedish king Birger Jarl mounted a 'crusade' against the wild men of the forests, which was more of an expedition of conquest. Finland soon became an integrated part of Sweden, and the frontier was constantly pushed further east, until the Swedes came into conflict with Great Novgorod. For almost six centuries, Sweden fought off the constant encroachments of Novgorod and later Moscow and Russia, but the defeat in the Great Northern War initiated a period of decline that was to cost Sweden its eastern half in 1809. Finland now became a Russian Grand Duchy with a certain measure of independence in order to avoid offending the bitter Swedes too much.;x
FLA;Flanders;x
FLA_DESC;The County of Flanders was a French fief grown from the area around Brugge which first stepped into the foreground under count Baldwin Iron Arm. This rich county fought for centuries to break free from France with changing fortunes but eventually was able to get out from under French wings. They enjoyed their Golden Age when cities which were all-powerful in Flanders, like Brugge and Gent, were at the height of their power in the late Middle Ages before the merchants, due to various reasons, turned to Antwerpen as their new center in the late 15th and early 16th century.  In 1419 Flanders had been under Burgundian rule for over 3 decades and was enjoying a prosperous age in the arts and, while in decline, was still a major commercial center. It was still easily the richest, most densely populated and most important county in the Low Countries. Together with the rest of the Burgundian inheritance they passed eventually to Spain, against whom they revolted as part of the Dutch Revolt. But Flanders succumbed to Farnese's Reconquista, which effectively ended its glory days.;x
FLO;Florence;x
FLO_DESC;Florence was founded as a Roman military colony in the 1st century BC, and over the centuries became a major cultural, economic, and political hub. During the 14th to 16th centuries, it became the cradle of the Italian Renaissance, fostering the works of luminaries like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Dante. The city was the seat of a powerful republic famed for its condottieri, later becoming the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Its wealth, largely driven by banking and trade, supported an unparalleled flourishing of the arts and sciences.;x
FOR;Formosa;x
FOR_DESC;Formosa, now known as Taiwan, has a rich and varied history. The name Formosa - meaning 'beautiful island' - was given by Portuguese sailors in 1542. It was a frontier society, often a colony in name and fact, requiring resourcefulness and determination from its settlers. The island experienced periods of both Dutch and Spanish colonial rule in the 17th century, followed by Han rule during the short-lived Kingdom of Tungning (1661-1683), and in turn direct Qing rule (1683-1895). In 1895, following the First Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki.;x
FRA;France;x
FRA_DESC;France was first used as the name of the kingdom in the 12th century, previously known as the Kingdom of the Franks. Although the king's demesne was only a small part of the whole kingdom, his position was secured in holy character of his person, through his consecration in the Cathedral of Rheims. All great nobles had to swear fealty to the king for their French territories, even if they were kings in their own right, like the Kings of England or Navarre. In the 14th century, the beginning of the Little Ice Age, the Black Death, and the Hundred Years War triggered a period of social and economic upheaval. The HYW war saw the King of France pitted against the King of England over who had the right to the French throne. Many great French nobles, also took part, notably the house of Burgundy, which saw a great opportunity for increased autonomy. In 1419, the king of England, Henry V, forcefully pressed his claim to the French throne on the French fields. Never before had the Kingdom of France been so close to losing its independence. Against all odds, France managed to rally and defeat English invaders, which allowed for the creation of strong, centralized nation that could constrain the ambitions of its great feudal families. Throughout its history, France would never cease to expand until the end of Napoleon's rule.;x
FRC;Franconia;x
FRC_DESC;Franconia is an historic region in southern Germany with a history dating back to ancient times. Initially inhabited by Celtic tribes, it later became a significant part of the Frankish Empire under Charlemagne in the 8th century. The region was one of the five stem duchies of medieval Germany and played a crucial role in the formation of the Holy Roman Empire in 962 AD. Franconia's political landscape was characterized by fragmentation into numerous smaller states and territories, a feature that persisted until the Napoleonic era.;x
FRI;Friesland;x
FRI_DESC;Friesland is a vast territory extending from the Scheldt River in the south to the Weser in the east. The land's topography changed greatly with floods during the 11th and 12th century that eventually created the Zuiderzee. Western Friesland came to be associated with the county of Holland. Eastern Friesland tried to individualize itself through the Opstalboom League of Free Frisians but the diverging interests of its constituents led quickly to the League's demise. A short lived county of East Frisia emerged in the 15th century that was soon reduced by Hamburg and Denmark. In 1498, Emperor Maximilian I bestowed what remained of Friesland to its last invader, Duke Albert of Saxony. Friesland resisted his authority and forced Albert's son to give it back to the Emperor.  Emperor Charles V sent an army that reduced the province by force in 1523 and appointed stewards to rule it. Friesland eventually joined the Union of Utrecht against Spain in 1579, but maintained its own stadtholders until 1748.;x
GAL;Galicia;x
GAL_DESC;Galicia, located in the northwest of Spain, has a unique cultural history that dates back to ancient times. Initially inhabited by the Celtic Gallaeci tribe, the region was conquered by the Romans around 137 BC and later became part of the Visigothic Kingdom. During the Middle Ages, Galicia was a significant Christian kingdom, known for its pilgrimage route, the Camino de Santiago, and capital, Santiago de Compostela - one of the great holy sites of Europe. The region was later integrated into the Kingdom of Castile in the late 11th century. Despite periods of political turmoil, Galicia has retained a distinct Celto-Iberian cultural identity, including its own language, Galician.;x
GEL;Guelders;x
GEL_DESC;The Duchy of Gelre was the part of the Netherlands that held out the longest against the unification process started by the Dukes of Burgundy. When Karl V added it to his possessions in 1543 the territorial unification process was completed. The Provinces of the Netherlands were united at last. It was conquered before in 1473 by Charles the Bold of Burgundy but after his death in 1477 it regained its independence. It passed to the House of Habsburg in 1543 and joined (1579) the Union of Utrecht of the Netherlands against Spain. It was part of the Dutch Republic which gained its independence from Spain. Part of Gelre including Geldern, the ducal capital, was ceded in 1715 by the Netherlands to Prussia.;x
GEN;Genoa;x
GEN_DESC;With a poor and thin hinterland, it was inevitable that Genoa became a naval power. It benefited greatly from the crusades, making wealth both by transporting the pilgrims and crusaders and by trading silks, ivory and spices for weapons and wool clothes. The Genoan navy then established its preeminence in the western Mediterranean Sea with the victory of Meloria in 1284 over Pisa. In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, Genoa helped Michael Palaiologos to secure the Byzantine Empire from the Latin lords who had settled there since the Fourth Crusade. Genoa was rewarded with possessions and trading privileges from Spain to the Black Sea. Its only true rival was Venice and that fight dragged on until the Peace of Turin in 1381, the beginning of Genoa's decline. Genoa had lost not only its fleet but its monopoly of trade in the Mediterranean Sea, as well. While it managed to gain some land around the city, it lost its outlying possessions. The rise of the Ottomans in the 15th century blocked trade with the Black Sea, pushing Genoa to become only a shadow of its former glory for the next several centuries.;x
GEO;Georgia;x
GEO_DESC;The Kingdom of Georgia was located on the Caucasus mountains, at the border of the Christian world during the Middle Ages. It found itself a Christian island in the middle of a Muslim sea of emirates when, in 1461, the fall of Trabzon, made it the only Christian kingdom in the Middle East. In 1490, King Alexander I under external and internal pressure was forced to divide Georgia into three kingdoms among his sons and himself (Imertia in the west, Kakhetia in the east and Karthlia in the middle).  To remain free, the three kingdoms had to play a game of alliances and were often subjugated to the surrounding Muslim powers. In the midst of conflicts between the Ottomans and Safavids, the various lords pulled out all the stops, converting back and forth between Islam and Christianity, when the situation warranted. In the 18th century, Heraclius II of Kakhetia managed to unify Georgia again with the Russian help. This assistance changed in protection and 1801, threatened by a Persian invasion, George XIII, last king of Georgia, abdicated in favor of the Tsar.;x
GER;Germany;x
GER_DESC;The Kingdom of Germany emerged from the eastern part of the Carolingian Empire following the Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD. It was a key component of the Holy Roman Empire, with its kings often being elected by the rulers of the stem duchies. The kingdom played a crucial role in medieval European politics, particularly during the Investiture Controversy and the reign of Emperor Otto I, who was crowned in 962. Over time, the title 'King of the Romans' was used to emphasize the imperial and transnational nature of the ruler's office. The Kingdom of Germany's influence waned as the Holy Roman Empire fragmented, but its legacy persisted in the region's complex political and cultural landscape.;x
GHA;Ghana;x
GHA_DESC;The Ghana Empire flourished in West Africa from the 6th to the 13th century AD. Located in the western Sudan savannah region, it was strategically positioned between the Sahara Desert and the rainforests, facilitating control over the trans-Saharan trade routes. The empire's wealth was largely derived from its abundant resources of gold, iron, and copper, which were traded for salt and other goods. The capital, Koumbi Saleh, became a bustling center of commerce and culture. Ghana's decline began in the 12th century due to internal strife, drought, and the rise of rival powers like the Sosso and Mali Empires.;x
GON;Gondwana;x
GON_DESC;Gondwana is a region in India named after the Gond people.  Three powerful Gond kindoms existed in the period between the 14th and 18th centuries. Nominally subjects of the Mughals, the Gond kingdoms were largely left to manage their own affairs. The Gonds would actually prosper under Mughal rule, allowed their independence and yet protected from foreign powers.  The rise of the Marathas would end the independent nature of the Gond kingdoms.;x
GOT;Gotland;x
GOT_DESC;Since the 10th century, Gotland had been a part of Sweden, paying an annual tax for protection but otherwise remaining an independent peasant community. Early on Gotland became a commercial center and by the 12th century Gotland dominated the routes between Russia and Western Europe. Until the mid-14th century most of the Novgorod trade passed through the island. They became Christianised in the 12th century, brought by a Norwegian King, on the run from his own people. In 1361 the Danish King Valdemar IV Atterdag conquered Gotland after which the trade routes shifted and Gotland declined. For the next three centuries Denmark, Hanseatic League, pirates, and Teutonic Knights variously controlled it, until in 1645 it came again under Swedish rule.;x
GRA;Granada;x
GRA_DESC;Heir to the splendid Caliphate of Cordoba, the province of Granada became in 1238 the seat of the kingdom of Granada - last refuge of the Moors whom the Christian reconquest had driven south. The concentration of Moorish civilization in Granada gave the city great splendor and made it a center of commerce, industry, art and science. However, the kingdom was weakened by continuous feuds among noble families which prevented any attempt at restoring the Moorish power in the peninsula. It was conquered by Ferdinand V and Isabella I during the reign of Boabdil. With the surrender in January 1492 of the city of Granada the Moors lost their last hold in Spain and the kingdom was united with Castile.;x
GRC;Gran Colombia;x
GRC_DESC;Before the arrival of the Spanish, the land was inhabited by the Chibcha and Caribbean people who were nomadic hunters or raisers. After the Spanish conquest, the native peoples were used as slaves to mine gold and gems that they then were forced to trade for grains and tools. Many natives lost their lives when killed while resisting, in the mines, and from various European diseases. Black slaves were brought in to handle their mining duties which eventually produced a mixed population. The Napoleonic invasion of Spain provided an opportunity for the independence of Colombia. On September 1810, the inhabitants of Bogota created a representative board defying the Spanish authority and shortly thereafter, in 1813, independence was proclaimed. Only following the victory of Simón Bolívar at Boyacá in 1819, was the independence of Greater Colombia secured, a sizable territory including what is now Colombia, Venezuela, Panama and Ecuador.;x
GRE;Greece;x
GRE_DESC;The fourth Crusade saw Latin overlords installed over most of Greece. The restoration of the Byzantine Empire by the Palaeologos family only recovered part of it, as much of Greece under the rule of French, Italien or Aragonese princes.  Ottoman conquest of the region was completed in 1456, although a few islands remained as Christian outposts. The Knights Hospitaller had to flee Rhodes in 1522, Genoa retained Khios until 1566, Venice held Naxos until 1537, Crete until 1669 and the Ionian Islands until 1797. The possessions of Venice and its eastern trade led it into numerous wars with the Ottomans, but it never managed to shake the Turkish grip on Greece.  Greece became an Ottoman province, poor in the hinterland, prosperous in its trade ports. The oppressive power and the weight of the taxes led to many revolts and a rise in nationalistic feeling, which gave way to independence in the early part of the 19th century.;x
GRN;Greenland;x
GRN_DESC;Greenland, the world's largest island, has a history marked by resilience and adaptation to extreme Arctic conditions. The first humans arrived around 2500 BC, with successive waves of Paleo-Inuit cultures following. Norse settlers from Iceland established colonies on the southwestern coast in the 10th century, but these had disappeared by the 15th century. The Inuit, ancestors of today's Greenlandic people, migrated from northwestern Greenland around 1200 AD. Danish colonization began in the 18th century, and Greenland became part of the Kingdom of Denmark in 1953.;x
GUA;Guatemala;x
GUA_DESC;Guatemala, located in Central America, was a major center of the ancient Maya civilization, which flourished from around 250 to 900 AD. Following the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, Guatemala became part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, a significant colonial territory. The country gained independence from Spain in 1821 and experienced a series of political changes, including periods of authoritarian rule and civil conflict.;x
GUJ;Gujarat;x
GUJ_DESC;Gujarat became an independent Sultanate in 1390. Its immense wealth invited attack and in 1509 the ever-enterprising Portuguese wrested the colony of Diu from the Sultan. In 1572 the Sultanate was annexed by the Mughal Empire. The Marathas were powerful in the area in the first half of the 18th century, but the British East India Company took over control of the region in 1818. Under the British overlords much of the region retained its various local princely rulers.;x
GUP;Gupta Empire;x
GUP_DESC;The Gupta Empire, which flourished from around 320 to 550 AD, is often heralded as the Golden Age of Indian history due to its remarkable achievements in arts, science, and culture. Founded by Chandragupta I, the empire expanded significantly under his successors, particularly Samudragupta and Chandragupta II, covering much of northern and central India. This period saw significant advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and literature, with the creation of the decimal system and notable works like the Kamasutra and the plays of Kalidasa. The Gupta era is also marked by impressive architectural feats, including the construction of temples and universities, such as Nalanda. Despite its eventual decline due to internal collapse and invasion by the Hunas, the Gupta Empire left a lasting legacy on Indian civilization.;x
GUY;Guyenne;x
GUY_DESC;The name Guyenne first became widespread with the Treaty of Paris (1259) between Louis IX of France and Henry III of England. By this treaty Louis IX accepted Henry III as his vassal for Guyenne and also for Gascony, which the English King had previously held in fief. (England had received both Aquitaine and Gascony in the 12th century through Henry II's marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine.) Guyenne was retaken by the French at the beginning of the Hundred Years' War but the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360 restored it with the whole of the old Aquitaine to the English. In the final stages of the Hundred Years' War France took back all these areas. The last attempt by the English to retake the territory was repulsed at the Battle of Castillon in 1453. Louis XI gave the duchy to his brother Charles in 1469, but after the latter's death in 1472 it once more became a Crown holding.;x
HAB;Austria;x
HAB_DESC;In 1419 Austria was not so much a nation as a political entity. Since the Privilegium Majus charter of the Habsburg Duke Rudolf IV in 1359, it was ruled by an Archduke, but essentially Austria simply represented the hereditary lands of the House of Habsburg. The 15th century saw the Habsburgs gaining ever more power. Albert V was elected Hungarian King in 1438 (but the title was lost again) and Maximilian I married the Burgundian heiress in 1477, thus acquiring the rich Low Countries. Though the last years of the century were hard for the Habsburgs, the next would see them more powerful than ever. The son of Maximilian, Philip, was married to the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain in 1496, and their son Charles became King of Spain in 1516, thus adding that nation to the Habsburg realm. In 1526, the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand I was elected King of Bohemia and King of Hungary. House Habsburg was now the incomparably most powerful dynasty in Europe. However, the event of the reformation and the uncompromising catholicism of the Habsburgs brought Austria no end of trouble, eventually resulting in the catastrophic 30 Years War.;x
HAI;Haiti;x
HAI_DESC;The island of Hispaniola was discovered by Columbus in 1492. The Arawak inhabitants gave its name to the island, Haiti meaning the land of mountains in their language. The native population was ravaged when the Spanish forced them to work in gold mines and they contracted European diseases. The eastern part of the island, holding the mines, was exploited by the Spanish who brought black slaves to care for the cane sugar plantations. The western part of the island was mainly deserted and was the base for French and English buccaneers, especially in Tortuga Island. Gradually, French settlers claimed the northern part of Haiti, that they named St. Domingue. By the Ryswick Treaty in 1697, Spain no longer claimed the French part of the island and by 1790, St. Domingue the most flourishing island in the Antilles thanks to 400,000 slaves. The French Revolution inspired a slave revolt in 1791, led by Toussaint Louverture. Slavery was abolished in 1793 in St. Domingue, becoming official by the French government in all French islands in 1794. In 1795, Spain ceded its part of the island to France but it is only in 1801 that Toussaint could conquer it. He abolished slavery in the whole island and began to inspire rumors that he sought independence for Haiti.  Though, he claimed loyalty to France, Bonaparte, lobbied by the creole pro-slavery faction, sent his brother-in-law Charles Leclerc with a huge punitive force to restore order. Initially successful, the expedition was forced to retreat, allowing Haiti to become the second independent nation in America.;x
HAL;Halych;x
HAL_DESC;Halych, an historic city on the Dniester River in western Ukraine, was the center of the medieval Principality of Halych, which later became part of the Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia. The city flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries, serving as a major political, economic, and cultural hub in the region. Despite suffering from invasions and political turmoil, Halych remained an important site, with notable landmarks such as the Church of the Nativity and the remnants of Halych Castle.;x
HAM;Hammadids;x
HAM_DESC;The Hammadid dynasty was a medieval Islamic kingdom located in the central Maghreb, encompassing present-day Algeria. Established in 1014 by Hammad ibn Buluggin, it emerged from the split of the Zirid domains. The dynasty reached its peak under Emir Al Nasir, becoming the most important state in Northwest Africa during the 11th century. The Hammadids built impressive cities like Qal'at Bani Hammad and later Bejaia, which became major cultural and economic centers. Despite their achievements, the dynasty faced challenges from the Almoravids, Zirids, and Normans, ultimately falling to the Almohads in 1152.;x
HAN;Hanover;x
HAN_DESC;The city of Hanover was first mentioned in documents from the 12th century. It was chartered in 1241 and joined the Hanseatic League in 1386. In 1386 it joined the Hanseatic League, and in 1692 it became the capital of the Electorate of Hanover, which was soon joined to England in dynastic union.;x
HAS;Hausa;x
HAS_DESC;The first seven Hausa cities were Biram, Daura, Kano, Zaria, Gobir, Rano, and Katsina. Eventually, the states of Zamfara, Kebbi, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri, Kororofa, and Illorin were added once Hausa influence spread. Despite the richness of their folklore and the existence of chronicles of the Kings of Kano and Katsina dating to 1100, little is known of this early period. During the 15th century Kano was the most important of the Hausa states, although its rulers paid tribute to the Kingdom of Bornu. In the 16th century, Hausaland became a battleground among Bornu, Songhai, and the Junkun empire. Partially due to this, Kano lost its economic supremacy to the rival city of Katsina. Eventually in the early 19th century, Usuman dan Fodio created the first united empire in Hausaland.;x
HAU;Brabant;x
HAU_DESC;The county of Brabant was created by the Emperor Henry IV in 1086 and raised to the title of duchy in 1184. Becoming locally powerful, it gained its independence from the Holy Roman Empire in the 14th century. Its cities, Antwerp, Brussels, Louvain, and outlying lands were extraordinarily prosperous and famous for their wool, textiles and banking institutions.  In 1430, lacking an heir, the duchy passed to Philip the Good of Burgundy and in 1477 to the Habsburgs.;x
HAW;Hawai'i;x
HAW_DESC;The Kingdom of Hawai'i was established in 1795 by King Kamehameha I, who unified the Hawaiian Islands under a single government after conquering O'ahu, Maui, Moloka'i, and Lana'i. By 1810, the islands of Kaua'i and Ni'ihau had also joined the kingdom. The kingdom thrived as a constitutional monarchy, recognized internationally for its strategic location and prosperous agriculture, particularly sugar exports. However, in 1893, the monarchy was overthrown by American and European settlers, leading to the eventual annexation of Hawai'i by the United States in 1898.;x
HEI;Holy Roman Empire;x
HEI_DESC;The Holy Roman Empire, established in 800 AD when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Emperor, was a complex political entity in Central and Western Europe. It evolved from the Carolingian Empire and lasted until its dissolution by Francis II in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. The empire was characterized by its decentralized structure, with numerous semi-autonomous territories governed by princes, dukes, and bishops under the nominal authority of the Holy Roman Emperor. Despite its fragmented nature, the empire played a crucial role in European politics, religion, and culture for nearly a millennium.;x
HEL;Switzerland;x
HEL_DESC;What is now Switzerland once belonged to the Empire of Charlemagne, and, when it was split among his sons, it went to the Kingdom of Burgundy before being Switzerland itself was split, with parts of it going to the duchy of Burgundy and the rest to the duchy of Swabia. From the 13th century, the Habsburgs tried to seize little Swiss fiefdoms, especially those controlling the trade through the Alps. To resist the Habsburg's might, three forest cantons, Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden, created a league of mutual defense in 1291. The defensive league expanded in the 14th century to other cantons and in the 15th century to include all the surrounding lands. Switzerland became a recognized nation in 1474 when they allied to Louis XI of France against the Duke of Burgundy. Switzerland left the Holy Roman Empire in 1499 and gained a reputation for its fierce and disciplined soldiers.;x
HES;Hesse;x
HES_DESC;Henri of Brabant became the first landgrave of Hessen in 1263 and was titled Prince of the Empire in 1292. Philip the Magnanimous was a leading figure in the German Reformation and Renaissance. He converted to the Protestantism and became a leader in the league of Smalkald. Pursuant to his death in 1567, the landgraviate was divided among his four sons with Kassel, Marburg, Rheinfels, and Darmstadt becoming their respective capitals. Two lines were to die out soon, Rheinfels in 1583 and Marburg 1605 lines, and the whole territory was held by the remaining lines of Hesse-Kassel and Hesse-Darmstadt. The two lines fought on opposite sides during part of the Thirty Years War. Hesse-Kassel became an Electorate in 1803 but was annexed by Napoleon in the Kingdom of Westphalia, in 1806. Restored in 1813, the Electorate of Hesse became a Great-Duchy until it was annexed by Prussia in 1866.;x
HLL;Holland;x
HLL_DESC;Holland was a wealthy and influential province of the Holy Roman Empire, emerging in the early 12th century as a fief ruled by the Counts of Holland. During the medieval era it fought most of its neighbours in order to remain independent, a struggle it eventually lost in 1433 with its acquisition by Philip the Good. Subsequently, Holland became a significant economic and maritime power, especially during the Dutch Golden Age, and played a crucial role in the formation of the Dutch Republic in 1579. Over the centuries, it transitioned from being part of the Burgundian (and later Habsburg) Netherlands to becoming the leading province of the Dutch Republic until the Batavian Revolution in 1795.;x
HOL;Netherlands;x
HOL_DESC;The lands of Western Friesland (between the Scheldt river and the Weser) began to be thoroughly settled in the 10th and 11th century. In the next two centuries, major floods created what is now the Zuiderzee. The counts of Holland were among the most powerful lords of the area, along with the dukes of Brabant and the counts of Flanders. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Flanders, Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland and Brabant passed to the dukes of Burgundy and through inheritance went to the Habsburgs in 1477. The seventeen provinces of the Spanish Low Countries rebelled and the seven most northern provinces became the United Provinces, forming the Republic of Netherland in 1588. The republic dominated the world trade in the 17th century, establishing settlements in most parts of the world and creating a huge stock market in Rotterdam and later in Amsterdam. Officially recognized in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the republic became the Batavian Republic at the hands of French revolutionaries in 1795, then the Kingdom of Holland in 1806 and finally the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815.;x
HON;Honduras;x
HON_DESC;Honduras, located in Central America, was inhabited by various indigenous peoples, including the Maya. The region became part of the Spanish Empire in the early 16th century following the arrival of Spanish explorers. Honduras gained independence from Spain in 1821 and briefly joined the First Mexican Empire before becoming part of the Federal Republic of Central America. By 1838, Honduras emerged as an independent nation. Throughout its history, Honduras has experienced periods of political instability and social strife, but it remains a country with a diverse cultural heritage and significant archaeological sites, such as the ancient Mayan city of Copán.;x
HSA;Hansa;x
HSA_DESC;At the end of the 13th century, a powerful alliance of cities - the Hanseatic League - had developed from a merchant's union with Lübeck taking on the leadership position of the Hanseatic Council. Despite the commercial power that she wielded, the Hanseatic League was never war-like, and not even a country in the true sense. The Latin phrase on the Holstein Gate in Lübeck reads 'Concordia Domi Foris Pax' - Harmony within Peace without, which was the prerequisite for the functional community and the undisrupted free trade which the Hanseatic League thrived on.;x
HUN;Hungary;x
HUN_DESC;In the Middle Ages, Hungary expanded with the vassal states of Croatia and Slavonia and the Serb and Romanian banates (marches) and voivodships (duchies).  The land was mostly rural and sparsely inhabited, the cities were small. In peripheral areas, immigration came mainly from Germany and Poland. After the end of the House of Anjou, several foreign monarchs ruled in Hungary, notably, Sigismund and Albert II of Austria and Ladislaus III of Poland. In the late 14th century, the Ottoman Turks began their advance in the Balkans, defeating the Hungarians and their allies at Kosovo in 1389, and later at Nikopol in 1396 and Varna in 1444. There was a short respite during the rule of the Regent Hunyadi and his son Matthias Corvinus, elected king in 1458, but the Ottomans quickly returned to the offensive and at the battle of Mohács in 1526, Sulayman the Magnificent's victory, led Ottoman domination over Hungary. The House of Habsburg claimed the Hungarian crown and tried to stop the impending invasion of Europe.;x
HUR;Huron;x
HUR_DESC;The Huron, named so by the French, meaning 'Bristly Head', called themselves the Wyandot meaning 'Island People' in Iroquoian. Living in dense longhouse villages along the shores of the Great Lakes they raised vast crops of corn and tobacco that were traded to other tribes for meat, copper and furs. In the 1600s the Huron allied with the French, acting as middlemen for the fur trade and receiving French support against the Mohawk tribe. Around 1640 the Iroquois League launched the Beaver Wars against Christianized Huron towns and other tribes, forcing them from their traditional lands. In 1701 the governor of New France brought together the leaders of the Iroquois and other Great Lakes Indians to promote friendship among the tribes but it accomplished little in the end. Then, at Fort Pitt in 1763, the British traded blankets purposely infected with smallpox to the Indians. The disease almost annihilated many Indian tribes and the last full-blooded Huron died in the early 19th century.;x
HUS;Hussites;x
HUS_DESC;The Hussites were a proto-Protestant Christian reform movement that emerged in Bohemia in the early 15th century, inspired by the teachings of Jan Hus. Hus, a Czech priest and philosopher, criticized the Catholic Church's practices and called for reforms, which led to his excommunication and execution in 1415. His followers, known as Hussites, continued his mission, leading to a series of religious conflicts known as the Hussite Wars (1419-1434) which embroiled most of Central Europe. The movement was marked by its emphasis on vernacular worship, communion in both kinds (bread and wine for all believers), and a strong sense of national identity. Despite facing significant opposition, the Hussites left a lasting impact on the religious landscape of Europe and paved the way for later Protestant movements under Luther and Calvin.;x
HYD;Hyderabad;x
HYD_DESC;In modern times the central Deccan has always been home to a succession of some of the most powerful nations in southern India. In the 15th century this nation was the Bahmanid Sultanate, in the 16th and 17th centuries Golconda dominated the area, while Hyderabad was the great nation in the area during the 18th century. In For The Glory, Hyderabad represents this succession of nations, from the Sultans of Bahmanid Dynasty in 1419 to the Nizams of Hyderabad in 1820.;x
ICE;Iceland;x
ICE_DESC;Iceland was settled by Norse explorers and their Celtic slaves in the late 9th century, with the first recorded settlement conventionally dated to 874 AD. The settlers established the Althing in 930 AD, one of the world's oldest parliaments. Iceland remained independent during the Old Commonwealth period (930-1262) until internal strife led to its subjugation by Norway in the 13th century. Later, it fell under Danish rule, which lasted until the 20th century. Despite its small population, Iceland has a rich cultural heritage, including the famous sagas that chronicle its early history.;x
ILK;Il-Khanate;x
ILK_DESC;The Il-Khanate, established in 1256 by Hülegü Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, was a Mongol khanate that ruled over much of present-day Iran, Iraq, and parts of Turkey, Armenia, and Afghanistan. It was part of the larger Mongol Empire but operated semi-independently. The Il-Khanate is notable for its conquest of Baghdad in 1258, which led to the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate. Over time, the Il-Khanate's predominantly Buddhist and Eastern Christian rulers converted to Islam, and the region saw a blend of Mongol and Persian cultures. The Il-Khanate eventually disintegrated in the mid-14th century due to civil war and the impact of the Black Death.;x
INC;Inca;x
INC_DESC;In the Cuzco area, the Inca people were only a member of a group of small power and were far from being the most powerful. They took preeminence in this confederation during the 14th century, by reinforcing their position in the Cuzco area and expanding in the 15th century. The kingdom of the Chimu was defeated around 1470 and in the early 16th, under the rule of Huayna Capac, the Inca Empire extended from the modern Ecuador to southern Chile. At his death, in 1527, the empire was divided between his sons Huáscar and Atahualpa. A civil war erupted, which provided an opportunity for the newly arrived Spanish under Francisco Pizarro.;x
IRA;Iraq;x
IRA_DESC;Iraq had been the seat of powerful Caliphate but the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 had begun a decline that was reinforced by the slaughter of the population of the city by Timur in 1401. Iraq was dominated by the surrounding powers: the Timurids, the Jalayrids, the Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu, the Persians and later the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Sultan had already taken the title of Caliph from the last Abbassid in Egypt in 1517 and Iraq became an Ottoman Province when Suleyman the Magnificent took Baghdad in 1534.;x
ISL;The Isles;x
ISL_DESC;The Kingdom of the Isles was a maritime realm that existed from the early Middle Ages until the late 13th century. It encompassed the Isle of Man and the Hebrides, along with other smaller islands in the Irish Sea and the west coast of Scotland. The kingdom was initially under Norse control, with Viking settlers establishing dominance in the region. It became a significant power in the Irish Sea, engaging in trade and warfare with neighboring kingdoms. The Kingdom of the Isles experienced fluctuating periods of independence and vassalage to larger powers, such as Norway and Scotland, until it was eventually absorbed into the Kingdom of Scotland in 1266 following the Treaty of Perth.;x
IST;Istria;x
IST_DESC;Istria, the largest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea, was initially inhabited by the Illyrian tribe of the Histri. The region was conquered by the Romans in 177 BC, and under Roman rule Istria became a crucial province of the empire, with notable developments such as the establishment of the city of Pula. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Istria experienced periods of Byzantine, Lombard, and Frankish control. In the medieval period, it came under the influence of the Venetian Republic, which left a lasting cultural and architectural legacy. After the fall of Venice, Istria was incorporated into the Habsburg Monarchy and later became part of the unified Kingdom of Italy.;x
ITA;Italy;x
ITA_DESC;Italy boasts a rich and diverse history that spans over three millennia. It was the heart of the ancient Roman Empire, which profoundly influenced Western civilization through its contributions to law, politics, architecture, and culture. After the fall of Rome in 476 AD, Italy fragmented into numerous city-states and kingdoms, including the influential maritime republics of Venice and Genoa. The Renaissance, which began in Italy in the 14th century, marked a period of extraordinary cultural and artistic achievement which made Italy the focal point of Europe for three centuries. Italy was unified in the 19th century under the leadership of figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi and Count Cavour, culminating in the establishment of the unified Kingdom of Italy in 1861.;x
JAI;Jaunpur;x
JAI_DESC;Jaunpur, located in southeastern Uttar Pradesh, was founded by Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq in 1359. Named in honor of his cousin, Muhammad bin Tughluq, the city became a significant cultural and educational center under the Sharqi dynasty, which ruled from 1394 to 1479. The Sharqi rulers were known for their patronage of architecture, leaving behind impressive structures like the Atala Mosque and the Shahi Bridge. Jaunpur's strategic location made it a focal point of regional power struggles, leading to its eventual incorporation into the Mughal Empire in the 16th century.;x
JAY;Jalayirids;x
JAY_DESC;The Jalayirids, a Mongol dynasty of Uyghur origin, ruled over parts of modern-day Iraq and western Iran following the fragmentation of the Il-Khanate in the 1330s. Their capital shifted between Baghdad, Tabriz, and Basra during their reign. The dynasty reached its zenith under Shaykh Uways (1356-1374), who consolidated power and fostered cultural development. However, the Jalayirids faced significant challenges arising firstly from Timur's conquests in the region, and secondly from their overmighty vassals the Qara Qoyunlu Turkmens. By 1432, political stagnation had led to the Jalayirid Sultanate being fully absorbed by the Qara Qoyunlu. Despite their relatively short rule, the Jalayarids' unique Mongol-Arab confederation left a lasting impact on the region's cultural and political landscape.;x
JER;Jerusalem;x
JER_DESC;The first crusade was successful in recovering the holy city of Jerusalem, from the Muslims, in 1099. In the 12th century, the Latin knights created fiefdoms in the Holy Land and Jerusalem was the capital of a new Kingdom. The divisions of the crusaders and their poor knowledge of their Muslims neighbors allowed Saladin to take back the city. The struggle between Christians and Muslims over the eastern Mediterranean coast lasted for nearly two centuries and ended with the loss of the last Frankish fortress in 1291 at St Jean d'Acre. Jerusalem would be ruled by Mamluks and later Ottomans, but the Christian nations would never lost the hope to take back Jerusalem.;x
JNT;Jaintia;x
JNT_DESC;Jaintia (also known as Jaintiapur, after its capital) was an ancient hill kingdom located in present-day Meghalaya, India, and parts of Sylhet, Bangladesh. Established around 500 AD, it was ruled by the Syiem Sutnga clan and known for its unique blend of indigenous tribal (Niamtre) and Hindu cultural influences. Jaintia's territory extended from the Jaintia Hills to the plains of Sylhet north of the Barak river, and its isolation and rugged terrain allowed it to maintain its independence for over a millennium. It was briefly annexed into the Ahom Kingdom (Assam) in the early 18th century, and later drew the interest of the British, who desired its lime quarries. Following a minor diplomatic incident, the British East India Company annexed Jaintia in 1835.;x
JOH;Johor;x
JOH_DESC;The Johor Sultanate, established in 1528 by Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II, a son of the Malacca Sultan Mahmud Shah, emerged as a significant maritime power in Southeast Asia. Located at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, Johor became a crucial center for trade and diplomacy, often engaging with European colonial powers. The sultanate experienced periods of prosperity and conflict, including the assassination of Sultan Mahmud Shah II in 1699, which led to the rise of the Bendahara dynasty. In the 19th century, Johor modernized under the leadership of Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim and his son, Sultan Abu Bakar, who is often credited with founding the modern Johor state.;x
JUT;Jutland;x
JUT_DESC;Jutland, a peninsula in Northern Europe, forms the continental part of Denmark and extends into northern Germany (Schleswig-Holstein). Historically known as the Cimbric Peninsula, it has been inhabited since prehistoric times by various tribes, including the Jutes, after whom it is named. The region was significant during the Viking Age and later became a crucial part of the Danish kingdom. Jutland's strategic location has made it a focal point in various conflicts, including the notable Battle of Jutland during the First World War, which was the largest naval battle in history.;x
KAB;Kabul;x
KAB_DESC;As an ancient city, Kabul has seen its share of local sovereigns and empires.  During the 14th century, Kabul rose to fame as a powerful trading outpost in the Timurid Empire.  Located in between Transoxiana, Indian and Persia, Kabul was an important nexus for trade routes as well as great starting point for would be emperors.  In 1504, conquered by Bâbur, Kabul became the capital of the nascent Mughal Empire.  It would maintain this distinction until the fall of Delhi in 1526.;x
KAL;Kalmar Union;x
KAL_DESC;The Kalmar Union was a political union that brought together the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under a single monarch from 1397 to 1523. Initiated by Queen Margaret I of Denmark, the union aimed to consolidate power and create stability in the region. The union was formalized in the Swedish city of Kalmar, where the three kingdoms agreed to be ruled by Margaret's grandnephew, Eric of Pomerania. Despite its initial success in unifying the Scandinavian countries, the union faced internal conflicts and power struggles, particularly from the cantankerous Swedish nobility. The Kalmar Union ultimately dissolved in 1523 when Sweden declared independence under King Gustav Vasa.;x
KAN;Kanem;x
KAN_DESC;The Kingdom of Kanem, located in modern-day Chad, flourished from the 9th to the 14th century AD. It was established by a confederation of nomadic peoples and ruled by the Saifawa dynasty. Positioned on the eastern shores of Lake Chad, Kanem became a significant hub for trade, connecting central African peoples with the Nile Valley and North African states. The kingdom adopted Islam in the 11th century through contact with Muslim traders and clerics. The late 14th century saw the kingdom's decline, and its rulers relocated to establish the Bornu Empire on the western side of Lake Chad.;x
KAR;Karaman;x
KAR_DESC;The greatest Turkish principality to emerge from the ruins of the Seljuk Empire, the Beylik of Karaman was often in conflict with the upstart Ottomans whose initial subjugation of them was ended with the Ottoman defeat at Ankara in 1402 by the forces of Tamerlane. While the Ottoman defeat and subsequent civil wars allowed the Karamans to regain most of their previously lost territories in Anatolia, the Beylik never regained the upper hand and by 1470 was reduced to a province of the resurgent Ottoman Empire.;x
KAZ;Kazan;x
KAZ_DESC;The Khanate of Kazan was a splinter faction of the Golden Horde that broke off in 1437 and became a power to be reckoned with in its own right. It lasted until Yadigar Muhammad's army was crushed by the forces of Ivan the Terrible in 1552.;x
KED;Kedah;x
KED_DESC;The Kedah Sultanate, located on the northern end of the Malay Peninsula (bordering Siam), is one of the oldest sultanates in Southeast Asia, with its origins tracing back to the 3rd century AD. Initially a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom, it is traditionally said to have converted to Islam under Sultan Mudzafar Shah I in 1136 AD - the first ruler in Southeast Asia to do so. Kedah's strategic position made it a vital trading hub, attracting merchants from India, Persia, and Arabia. Over the centuries, it faced invasions and influences from neighboring powers, including the Siamese and the rival Malacca Sultanate. In 1909, Kedah became a British protectorate under the Anglo-Siamese Treaty.;x
KEF;Cephalonia;x
KEF_DESC;Cephalonia, the largest of the Ionian Islands in western Greece, was initially inhabited by the Illyrian tribe of the Histri, and was later dominated by four city-states: Pale, Cranii, Same, and Pronnoi. The island played a role in significant historical events, such as the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars. Conquered by the Romans in 187 BC, Cephalonia became a strategic naval base. Throughout the medieval period, it changed hands multiple times, experiencing periods of Byzantine, Norman, and Venetian rule. Following the turmoil of the Napoleonic Wars, Cephalonia became a British protectorate until it was eventually gifted to the modern Greek state in 1864.;x
KHA;Khandesh;x
KHA_DESC;Khandesh, an historical region in northwestern Maharashtra, is situated in India's Tapti River valley. It was originally part of the ancient Abhira kingdom and later came under the rule of various dynasties, including the Delhi Sultanate. In 1382, Malik Ahmad established the independent Khandesh Sultanate, ruled by the Faruqi dynasty, with its capital at Burhanpur. The sultanate flourished as a center of trade and culture until it was annexed by the Mughal Empire in 1601. In the 18th century, Khandesh became part of the Maratha Confederacy and was later incorporated into British India following the Third Anglo-Maratha War in 1818.;x
KHE;Khemundi;x
KHE_DESC;The Khemundi Kingdom, located in present-day Orissa, India, was established in the early 14th century by Narashingha Deba, a son of the Eastern Ganga (Orissa) monarch Bhanudeva II. The kingdom included the regions of Paralakhemundi, Badakhemundi and Sanakhemundi, which were initially unified under a single Raja but after 1608 split into smaller 'estates' ruled by separate cadet branches. The Khemundi rulers maintained their influence and independence through a strategic policy of shifting alliances with neighbouring states, even as the region came under effective British control in 1768. The final Khemundi king, Maharaja Krushna Chandra Gajapati, later became the first prime minister of India's Orissa Province.;x
KHI;Khiva;x
KHI_DESC;Nomadic Uzbeks had been raiding Sogdiana for some time in the late 15th century when they used quarrels for succession to Timurid throne to invade the Timurid empire. The Uzbeks took Samarkand and Boukhara in 1500. Bâbur, one of the last Timurids, had fled in Kabul in 1504. The Persians stopped the Uzbeks advance in 1510, allowing the rise of the new Safavid dynasty in Persia. The Uzbeks conquered Khwarazm in 1511 and from there created what would be the Khanate of Khiva. Far from being a united nation, it was at first a confederation of four tribes, whose heads, the sultans, elected a Khan, generally the oldest member. The Khanate expected to benefit of the caravans passing through the land, but the trade and generally all the activities in the Khanate stagnated for more than a century, with religious imams taking precedence over the rulers. A change of dynasty, the arrival of Turkmens and a change toward a more centralized rule allowed more stability and economic progress. The land was still poor and the Khanate relied heavily on the raids performed on the surrounding states.;x
KHM;Khmer Empire;x
KHM_DESC;The Khmer Empire was a powerful state in Southeast Asia that flourished from 802 to 1431 AD. Centered in present-day Cambodia, it was founded by Jayavarman II, who declared himself a universal ruler, or chakravartin. The empire is renowned for its impressive architectural achievements, particularly the construction of Angkor Wat, one of the largest religious monuments in the world. At its height, the Khmer Empire controlled vast territories - including parts of modern-day Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam - and was the main bastion of the Hindu religion and Sanskrit language in Southeast Asia. The empire's decline began in the 13th century due to internal strife, external invasions, and ecological challenges, culminating in the fall of Angkor to the Siamese in 1431.;x
KHO;Khorasan;x
KHO_DESC;Khorasan was occupied by Arabs in the mid-7th century and Abu Muslim used Khorasan as his power base to attack the Umayyad Caliphate. It contributed to the power of the early Abbasid Caliphate but was severely devastated by Turkish invasions in the mid-12th century, the Mongols from 1220-1222 and Timur in 1383. With the fall of the Timurid Empire, Khorasan has again asserted its power as a possible successor state to Timur's failing empire.;x
KIE;Kievan Rus';x
KIE_DESC;Kievan Rus' was established in the late 9th century by the Viking leader Oleg the Wise, and was the first East Slavic state and a significant medieval political federation. Centered around the city of Kiev, it united various Slavic and Finnic tribes under the rule of the Rurik dynasty. The state reached its zenith in the 10th and 11th centuries, particularly under the reigns of Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav the Wise, who expanded its territory and promoted Orthodox Christianity. Kievan Rus' played a crucial role in the cultural and political development of Eastern Europe before gradually declining due to dynastic infighting, culminating in the Mongol invasion of the 13th century.;x
KIL;Kilwa;x
KIL_DESC;The people known as the Zanj (a name given to them by the early Arab traders) have dominated the eastern African coastline for centuries, long before the arrival of Islam. The early tribal peoples and clans that make up this region are better known as the Swahili, which derives its name from the Arabic word 'sawahil' meaning 'the coast people'. From around 1200 to 1500, powerful Swahili city-states, most of them from the native Bantu tribes, began to emerge as thriving centers of commerce in the east African trade. Kilwa became the most important coastal trading center by 1000 A.D. In the 13th century, it captured Sofala whose gold resources made it the most prosperous Zanj state. By 1490, the decline in gold trade and its rivalry with Mombasa would remove Kilwa's glory permanently During the 1500s, the Portuguese began occupying areas of the Zanj coastline, starting with Kilwa.;x
KIP;Kipchaks;x
KIP_DESC;The Kipchaks were a Turkic nomadic people who played a significant role in the Eurasian Steppe during the Middle Ages. Originating near the Altai region, they expanded westward by the 9th century, forming a powerful confederation with the Cumans. By the 11th century, the Kipchaks controlled vast territories from the Aral Sea to the Black Sea. They were known for their skills as pastoralists and warriors, often engaging in conflicts with neighboring states such as the Kievan Rus', Byzantines and Hungarians. The Kipchak confederation eventually fell to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century, with many Kipchaks being absorbed into the Golden Horde or fleeing to other regions. Their legacy includes significant cultural and linguistic contributions, such as the Codex Cumanicus, a trilingual dictionary of Kipchak, Latin, and Persian.;x
KLE;Cleves;x
KLE_DESC;The county of Cleves existed from the 11th century, with the town, itself, chartered in 1242. The county was united to the neighboring county of Mark and was made a duchy in 1417. In 1521 it expanded again, gaining the Duchies of Berg and Jülich. At the end of the House of Jülich-Berg-Cleve, in 1609, a short war of succession saw the Palatinate taking to the field against Brandenburg. With the treaty of Xanten in 1614, the Palatinate took Jülich and Berg and Brandenburg took Cleves and Mark. The lands were held by the French during the Revolution and Napoleonic Wars and it were given back to Prussia in 1815.;x
KMK;Kalmyk;x
KMK_DESC;The Kalmyks were an Oirat (western Mongol) tribe who migrated from Mongolia across the Eurasian steppe into the lands of the Kazakhs (whom they fought) and eventually into the Caucasus, where they settled in the 17th century after displacing the western remnant of the Nogai horde. Though a small and largely pastoral realm, the Kalmyk Khanate was an important regional vassal for the Russian Tsar and provided skilled horsemen for Russian expeditions against the Tatars and Turks, before finally being annexed into Russia in 1771.;x
KMT;Kamata;x
KMT_DESC;The Kamata Kingdom emerged in the late 13th century in the region of present-day Assam and parts of West Bengal, India. It was established by Sandhya, a ruler who moved his capital westward to Kamatapur. The kingdom played a crucial role in the transition from ancient to medieval Assam, encompassing areas that were previously part of the Kamarupa kingdom. The Kamata Kingdom saw the rise of the Khen dynasty, which was later overthrown by Alauddin Hussain Shah of the Bengal Sultanate in 1498. Eventually, the Koch dynasty, founded by Biswa Singha in the early 16th century, took over, leading to the division of the kingdom into Koch Bihar and Koch Hajo.;x
KNI;Order of St. John;x
KNI_DESC;The Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem was originally a monastic brotherhood founded on the basis of an existing hospital in the Holy Land dedicated to care for the pilgrims. With the first Crusade and the conquest of Jerusalem, it evolved in a religious and military order. When Acre fell in 1291, the order moved to Cyprus first then to Rhodes. From there they preyed on the Muslim traders and Barbary pirates. They benefited of the dissolution of the Templar order, gaining many possessions in all Europe. They withstood many invasions from the Mamluks and the Ottomans, but in 1522 they had to flee Rhodes when confronted to the 400 ships and 200,000 men of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. At first, withdrawing in Sicily, the King Charles I of Spain gave them the island of Malta where the order continued its fight against Muslims. They finally fell to Bonaparte on his way to Egypt in 1798. They ceased to be a military order, but still continue to exist as a humanitarian organization and as a sovereign nation in Rome.;x
KOK;Kokand;x
KOK_DESC;Kokand, a city in the Fergana Valley of eastern Uzbekistan, has a history dating back to at least the 10th century when it was known as Khavakand. It was a significant hub on the Silk Road, facilitating trade between South Asia and East Asia. The city was destroyed by the Mongols in the 13th century but later revived. In 1709, Kokand became the capital of the Khanate of Kokand, a powerful Central Asian state that lasted until 1876. The khanate was known for its cultural and economic prosperity, as well as its strategic importance in the region.;x
KOL;Cologne;x
KOL_DESC;The Archbishop of Cologne was one of the seven Electors of the Holy Roman Empire since 1356. But the city of Cologne was self-governing since 1288 and was a trade city, member of the Hanseatic League. Its trade flourished because of its location on the River Rhine, in the heart of Germany. Cologne became a free Imperial city in 1475. The city and the trade declined with the forced emigration of the Jews in the 15th century and the restrictions on Protestants in the following centuries when most of the neighbor states were Protestants. Cologne was seized by the French Revolutionaries in 1794 and held until 1815, when the land was ceded to Prussia.;x
KON;Kongo;x
KON_DESC;In the 15th century, the kingdom of Kongo ruled over from what is now the south of Gabon to Angola and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Kwango River. Other small and more or less autonomous kingdoms paid it tribute. Kongo was ruled by the manikongo or king and was divided into provinces around the central capital area. Each province was administered by a governor appointed by the manikongo. The country was administratively developed with a large trade network and a finance administration. The Portuguese were the first European nation to establish relations with the King of Kongo, in the 1480s. Christian missionaries were sent and the king of Kongo converted to Christianity and took a Portuguese name. But the relations became less friendly in the 16th century when the slaves trade grew, lowering the power of the kingdom. The kingdom fell apart in the 17th century.;x
KOR;Korea;x
KOR_DESC;Squeezed in between China, Japan, and the warlike Manchu tribes, Korea was always in peril of becoming swallowed up by one of its great neighbors. Despite this precarious situation, Korea managed to survive and thrive under the Choson dynasty that was established in 1392 and lasted till 1910, although they did pay tribute to the Chinese Emperor. The peace was shattered in 1592, when Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the Japanese Shogun who had just reunified Japan, sent a large force to Korea in an alleged attempt to invade China. The Korean land forces suffered a series of defeats, but Korean naval forces, led by Admiral Yi Sun-shin, secured full control of the sea. With the help of China, the Japanese were finally driven out in 1598. The next serious threat appeared when the nomadic Manchu violated the borders of both Ming China and Korea in the early 17th century. Ming Chinese and Korean punitive attacks on Manchu strongholds in 1619 were beaten back, and in 1627 the Manchu overran northern Korea, forcing them to pay tribute to them instead of the Ming dynasty.;x
KRD;Kurdistan;x
KRD_DESC;Kurdistan, the ethnic homeland of the Iranian Kurdish people since ancient times, spans parts of eastern Turkey, northern Iraq, western Iran, and northern Syria. Throughout history, various Kurdish dynasties, such as the Hasanwayhids, Marwanids, and Ayyubids, have ruled parts of the region - often fighting either with or against neighboring Arab, Persian and Turkish rulers. The Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 marked a significant turning point, aligning the Kurds with the Ottoman Empire. Despite never achieving political unity, Kurdistan has long been a significant cultural and political entity in the Middle East, and its proud people have never accepted foreign occupation.;x
KRE;Crete;x
KRE_DESC;Crete, the largest of the Greek islands, has a history that stretches back to ancient times and is renowned as the cradle of the Minoan civilization, Europe's first advanced society, which flourished from around 2700 to 1420 BC. The island's strategic location made it a significant cultural and trade hub in the Mediterranean. Following the decline of the Minoans, Crete was successively ruled by the Mycenaeans, Romans, Byzantines, Venetians, and Ottomans. Each of these periods left a distinct mark on the island's cultural and architectural heritage, and under the four centuries of Venetian rule (1205-1667) the island kingdom was known as Candia.;x
KRN;Carniola;x
KRN_DESC;Carniola, an historical region in present-day Slovenia, was initially inhabited by the Celtic tribe of the Carni, and was later incorporated into the Roman province of Pannonia. In the 6th century, Slovenes settled in the area, and it became part of the Holy Roman Empire in the 11th century as the March of Carniola. The region was ruled by the Habsburgs from the late 13th century and was elevated to a duchy in 1364. Carniola remained under Habsburg control, becoming part of the Austrian Empire in 1804 and later Austria-Hungary in 1867.;x
KSH;Kashmir;x
KSH_DESC;The Kashmir Sultanate was a medieval Islamic kingdom located in the Kashmir Valley, with its capital at Srinagar. It was founded in the early 14th century by Rinchan Shah, a Ladakhi Buddhist noble who converted to Islam. The sultanate saw significant cultural and political development under the Shah Mir dynasty (1339-1561) but experienced rapid decline under the later Chak dynasty (1561-1589), including the Mughal conquest and the fall of Srinagar. The sultanate's greatest legacy was its religious and cultural syncretism - a concept known as 'Kashmiriyat' - and the gradual transition of Kashmir from Hinduism to Islam, as well as the emergence of a distinct Punjabi identity and religion (Sikhism) to the southwest.;x
KUR;Courland;x
KUR_DESC;The early Baltic tribes who inhabited the region, the Letts and Kurs, were subjugated in the 13th century by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. In 1561 the Order disbanded and its grand master became the first duke of Courland under Polish suzerainty. In the Northern War (1700-21) it was taken (1701) by Charles XII of Sweden. Empress Anna who was by marriage duchess of Courland before her accession in Russia forced (1737) the nobles of Courland to elect her favorite Ernst Johann von Biron their duke. Russian influence became paramount and with the third partition of Poland (1795) the duchy finally passed to Russia.;x
KUS;Küstrin;x
KUS_DESC;Küstrin, now known as Kostrzyn, is a town on the eastern bank of the Oder River in present-day Poland. Originally settled by Slavic tribes in the 10th century, it became a significant site when the Knights Templar established a market and received a city charter in the 13th century. The town developed into a fortified stronghold with the construction of a castle and additional fortifications in the mid-1500s. Küstrin played a strategic role in various conflicts, including the Thirteen Years' War - following which the Teutonic Knights sold it to Brandenburg - the Seven Years' War, and the Napoleonic Wars.;x
KUT;Kutei;x
KUT_DESC;Kutei (Kutai Karta Negara) is one of the most ancient Hindu states in Southeast Asia. The oldest available yupa (sacrificial pole) dates from about 400 AD, and mentions both Maharaja Mula Varman and his son Acwa Varman. Thereafter, the state virtually disappears from the view of the outside world. Little is heard about the state or its ruling dynasty until 1365, when brief mention is made in the epic Javanese historical poem Negarakartagama. The ruler converted to Islam in 1565. Contact with the outside world gradually expanded thereafter. The Dutch first visited the area in 1635 under Gerrit Thomassen Pool, but achieved little and retired. Bugis mariners arrived in 1721, defeated the ruler, established a permanent settlement at Samaranda and took control of the principality of Pasir. In time, they intermarried with the local Malays and Dayaks. They became a permanent feature of the state and served as the ruler's soldiers and policemen. Under Bugis influence, Islam took a more prominent role in state affairs. The ruler assumed the Islamic title of Sultan ca. 1732 and implemented a number of religious decrees. Nevertheless, traditional Hindu practices continued to enjoy a pre-eminent place in cultural affairs. The arrival of the British during the Raffles administration increased European interest in Kutei. Explorers and military officers visited and wrote about its unique culture. However, it wasn't until 1825 that permanent relations were established with the Sultan. In the meantime, commercial relations had progressed quite rapidly with British traders in Singapore. Rattan, gutta-percha and bees-wax were amongst the major exports. This did not please the Dutch and they appointed a local civil administrator in 1846.;x
KZK;Kazakh;x
KZK_DESC;The Kazakhs were (and are) a people of Turkish and Mongol ancestry with a Khan descended from the Mongol conqueror Chenghis Khan. Originally part of the White Horde which inhabited the steppes of what is today northern Kazakhstan, they split with the group later known as the Uzbeks because of a dispute over the leadership of the White Horde, causing the disintegration of that Mongol Horde. The Kazakhs later settled in all parts of modern Kazakhstan and eventually became divided into three hordes - the Small, the Middle, and the Great, with the leaders of the Great and Middle Hordes fighting each other for overall supremacy.;x
LAP;Argentina;x
LAP_DESC;When Carlos III rose to the throne in Spain a great reform of the Spanish American possessions was started. One of those reforms was the division of the 'Virreynato del Perú' for political reasons, creating a new Virreynato called 'de la Plata' with its capital in Buenos Aires. The new Virreynato included the territories of Charcas Tucumán Cuyo Paraguay and Buenos Aires. Later, in 1810 when Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain and replaced Carlos V with his brother José Bonaparte, several 'juntas' were created in Spain and Spanish America to govern in the name of the true king. One of those was the 'Primera Junta' of Buenos Aires. First they swore loyalty to Fernando VII, the heir of Carlos V, but later they broke their links with Spain and declared independence in July 1816.;x
LAT;Teutonic Order;x
LAT_DESC;The Teutonic Order was a military and religious order founded in the late 12th century during the siege of Acre in the Third Crusade. Preferingly chosen by German knights, its role was to help the pilgrims and the crusaders in the Holy Land. After the fall of Acre in 1291, the Order withdrew in their land possessions of Prussia and Livonia where they went on the crusade, against the pagan people living in Eastern Europe. It founded a new nation where more Germans came either to fight or to settle. Their capital was set in Marienburg in 1309. The decline of the order began with the rise of Poland as a major power. The battle of Tannenberg, won by the Poles, the Lithuanians and Bohemian or Tatar mercenaries, stopped the expansion of the order. In 1525, the Grand-Master of the Teutonic Order, Albert of Brandenburg, who had embraced the Reformation, created a secular duchy of Prussia, vassal to Poland.;x
LAX;Lan Xang;x
LAX_DESC;The Lan Xang Hom Khao or 'the land of a million elephants and of the white parasol' was created in the 14th century by the Prince Fa Gnum. This Lao prince, educated in the Khmer Empire, at Angkor Vat, went through the valley of Mekong and unified the states of what is now Laos. Supported at first by the Khmer Empire, the land would know sixty years of prosperity and then one century of decline and instability before falling prey to its neighbours.;x
LEI;Leinster;x
LEI_DESC;Leinster was the southeastern Irish kingdom. Traditional quarrels between the Irish kingdoms were interrupted in the late 12th century by the settlements of Anglo-Normans lords, who encouraged by Henry II of England, dethroned the king of Leinster. The Irish lords were replaced by English nobility such as the Fitzgeralds and the Butlers except in the more mountainous areas. In the 17th century, the Cromwellian campaigns ensured English rule and land ownership.;x
LEO;León;x
LEO_DESC;León, in northwestern Spain, was originally founded as a Roman military encampment in the 1st century BC. It became the capital of the Kingdom of León in 910 AD, playing a crucial role in the Christian Reconquista against the Moors. The city flourished during the Middle Ages, becoming a center of political and cultural activity in Iberia, and co-capital of the unified Kingdom of Castile-León after 1230. Notable landmarks from this period include the León Cathedral, a masterpiece of Gothic architecture, and the Basilica of San Isidoro, which houses the Royal Pantheon.;x
LIE;Liège;x
LIE_DESC;The Prince-Bishopric of Liège was an ecclesiastical principality within the Holy Roman Empire, established in 980 under Bishop Notger. Located in present-day Belgium, it combined both religious and secular authority, with its bishops holding the title of prince-bishop. The principality played a significant role in the region's political and cultural life, often caught between the influences of neighboring powers such as Burgundy and the Habsburgs. It was a center of learning and art, particularly during the medieval period. The Prince-Bishopric of Liège maintained its autonomy until the Liège Revolution in 1789, after which it was annexed by France in 1795.;x
LIT;Lithuania;x
LIT_DESC;The name is known in Western Europe since the early 10th century when the Liths settled in the area as early as 1500 B.C. The pagan tribes were rarely united until they were attacked in the 13th century by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Teutonic Knights. The Christian orders conquered an area which now comprises Estonia, Latvia, and parts of Lithuania. The Liths united under a single grand-duke and converted to the Orthodox religion. Their lands extended in actual Belarus, Ukraine and part of Russia. In 1386, Grand Duke Jagiello became king of Poland marrying with the daughter of Louis I of Poland. He converted to Christianity and also made it the state religion in the Lithuanian part of the new Commonwealth. This Commonwealth would become a single nation, the largest in Europe, in 1569.;x
LIV;Livonian Order;x
LIV_DESC;The first German attempts to penetrate into the Baltic region can be traced back to the second half of the 12th century, when German merchants established numerous trading posts on the Baltic coast. German missionaries came right after them and tried to thrust a new religion - Christianity - on the local pagan tribes of the Livs, Estes and Kurs. In 1201 Germans founded the first city in the conquered lands - Riga - which later became the main citadel of German colonization in the area. Pope Innocent III declared a special crusade against the pagan Livs, Kurs and other neighboring tribes. A special order, called the Livonian Order or Swordbrothers' Order (in accordance with a depiction of a sword on the capotes of the brethern) was founded. The statute of the newly established Order was copied after those in Palestine. By the early 13th century the Livs, Kurs and other neighboring tribes had largely been conquered and force-converted. The Order imposed a heavy duty on the peasants in favor of the Church. Political power was shared by the Archbishops of Riga and Grandmasters of the Order. As time passed by, the Order was losing its possessions and fully disintegrated towards the beginning of the Livonian War 1558-1583. The last Grandmaster of the Order, Gotthard Kettler, seculirized the Order after the Ergem battle of 1560, and formed an independent Duchy of Courland.;x
LNA;Lan Na;x
LNA_DESC;The north Thailand area was inhabited by the Mons. In the 13th century, Meng Rai, a Thai King born in a small independent principality in Chiang Saen, destroyed the last Mon kingdom. He unified the Thai tribes and created a new kingdom, 'Lan-Na-Thai', meaning 'land of a million rice fields'. He extended his kingdom to Lampang in the south and to Lamphun and received tribute from several surrounding kingdoms. He created the cities of Chiang Rai and Chiang Mai, the latter one becoming the capital in 1345. The country resisted the expansion of the southern Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya, but also from the invasions from Burma or Laos. The 15th century was the golden age of both Thai kingdoms of Lan Na and Ayutthaya in spite of their rivalry. Many temples were built and in 1455 the king of Lan Na managed to hold the Eight World Buddhist Council in Chiang Mai. The country entered in a decline phase in the 16th century with quarrels over the succession of the throne, a devastating earthquake in Chiang Mai and the fall of the capital to the Burmese kingdom of Pegu. Lan Na would remain partially controlled and subjugated by Burmese kings for two centuries.;x
LNK;Lanka;x
LNK_DESC;The first Singhalese population probably came from Orissa or Bengal. The legend claim that the first Singhalese prince was the son of a Bengalese princess and a lion (sinha) whence de name of Sinhala for Lanka. The Tamul people originated from the southern tip of India and came in the 13th century. Their kingsdoms pushed the Singhalese kingdoms to the south of the island. The island was a major trade center, with traders coming from Persia, Arabia, Burma or Malaysia. The island flourished and was a major Buddhist center with many temples, monasteries or schools. The first Portuguese mission arrived in Lanka in 1505 and the Dutch came in the 17th century. Both settled in the island and only the hilly area in the middle of the island remained independent. The British East India Company would take the island in 1796 and the last independent kingdom disappeared in 1815.;x
LOR;Lorraine;x
LOR_DESC;Lorraine, or Lothringen, was created as a German duchy in the 10th century. The House of Alsace was given the duchy and became House of Lorraine, ruling the land until 1738. In the 15th century, the duchy is the objective of Burgundy to get a continuous territorial access between Burgundy and its possessions in the Low Countries. The Duke of Lorraine, René II, took an alliance with the King of France and defeated Charles the Bold at Nancy in 1477. The 16th century was a flourishing era at the beginning but plagues and then religion wars stroke the duchy in the second half of the century. In France, a cadet branch of the House of Lorraine, the Guise family, led the Ultra-Catholic faction but was unable to seize the throne of France. The 17th century was a difficult one with plague again, the Thirty Years war and the French occupation. Lorraine would be occupied during nearly all wars involving France in spite of the repeated guaranties of Lorraine's independence in the treaties of Westphalia, Pyrenees or Ryswick. The duchy was occupied once again in the 18th century, maintained for a time as a puppet state and finally annexed in 1766.;x
LOU;Louisiana;x
LOU_DESC;Louisiana, established in 1682 by French explorer René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle, was a vast territory named in honor of King Louis XIV. It stretched from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Appalachian Mountains to the Rocky Mountains. The region served as an administrative district of New France and included notable settlements such as Mobile, Biloxi, and its capital of Nouvelle-Orléans (later New Orleans), founded in 1718. Louisiana was a hub for trade, particularly in furs, and developed a unique cultural blend influenced by French, African, and Native American traditions. The territory changed hands several times, being ceded to Spain in 1762, briefly returned to France in 1800, and finally sold to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.;x
LTN;Latin Empire;x
LTN_DESC;The Latin Empire of Constantinople was a feudal Crusader state established in 1204 by the leaders of the Fourth Crusade on lands captured from the Byzantine Empire. Intended to replace the Byzantine Empire as the Western-recognized Roman Empire in the east, it was ruled by a Catholic emperor instead of the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine emperors. The empire's creation was heavily influenced by Venice, which sought to benefit from the new political situation. Despite initial successes, the Latin Empire struggled to maintain control over its territories and faced constant challenges from Byzantine successor states and neighboring powers. It ultimately fell in 1261 when the resurgent Byzantine Empire was restored under the Palaiologos dynasty.;x
LTR;Lotharingia;x
LTR_DESC;The Kingdom of Lotharingia was established in 855 AD as a medieval successor state of the Carolingian Empire, and named after King Lothair II who inherited the territory following the Treaty of Prüm. It encompassed regions of present-day Lorraine (France), Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Belgium, and parts of western Germany. Lotharingia was formed from the division of Middle Francia, itself a result of the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The kingdom experienced frequent conflicts between East and West Francia due to its strategic and prestigious location. In 959, Lotharingia was divided into Upper and Lower Lorraine, eventually becoming buffer states of the Holy Roman Empire and losing its identity as an independent realm.;x
LUA;Luang Prabang;x
LUA_DESC;The city of Luang Prabang was named after a sacred gold Buddha called 'Pra Bang' which was a gift from the Khmer court to Fa Ngum. Fa Ngum was a Lao prince raised in the court of Angkor Wat who carved out the kingdom of Lan Xang in 1353. It encompassed all of present-day Laos and most of northeast Thailand. Luang Prabang became the centre of Lao culture trade and religion for the next 200 years. When King Souligna Vongsa died in 1694 without an heir the leadership of Lan Xang was contested. In 1713 the nation split into three kingdoms: Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champassak. This division attracted outside aggressors, and by the 1800s most of Lan Xang had become a satellite state of Siam, with the exception of Luang Prabang, which held on to a the remnants.;x
LUC;Lucca;x
LUC_DESC;Lucca, a city in Tuscany, Italy, was founded by the Etruscans and later became a Roman colony in 180 BC. Known for its well-preserved Renaissance-era city walls, Lucca was an important city and fortress throughout the centuries. During the Middle Ages, it was a significant center of commerce and culture, maintaining its independence as a city-state until the end of the 18th century. The city boasts numerous historical landmarks, including the Piazza dell'Anfiteatro, the Guinigi Tower, and the Cathedral of San Martino.;x
LUX;Luxemburg;x
LUX_DESC;The city of Luxemburg was founded in the 10th century on the ruins of a Roman settlement. In the 14th century the Dukes of Luxemburg rose to become the most powerful noble family in Germany by acquiring Bohemia, Brandenburg, and Hungary. From 1347 on the family also held the office of Holy Roman Emperor. In 1437 Luxemburg's glory came to an abrupt end with the death of Sigismund, the last ruler of the House of Luxemburg. The city itself was soon conquered by Philip of Burgundy. In 1477 Burgundy and with it Luxemburg were inherited by Maximilian of Habsburg and the city remained under Habsburg control for the next three centuries. In 1795 Luxemburg was conquered by the armies of revolutionary France but in 1815 the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg was reestablished ruled by the Kings of the Netherlands.;x
MAA;Maya;x
MAA_DESC;The classical era of the Maya civilization rose to its height in the 9th century. Climatic changes and human induced ecologic disasters probably caused the drastic depopulation of the area. The Toltec civilization rose after the Mayas, mixing a Mexican influence to the Maya culture. Metallurgy and ceramics appeared. But these lands in Central America were still poor and their manpower was quite not high enough to resist the Spanish troops arriving in Yucatan and Guatemala after the destruction of the Aztecs in 1521. The lands were even more desert by the diseases brought by the Spanish in the early 16th century. Without major needs for slaves with few mines and an unfavorable climate and vegetation, the Maya population was neither exterminated nor fully incorporated in a Métis society.  They still form the mass of the rural population.;x
MAD;Madurai;x
MAD_DESC;Madurai is an ancient city which once visited by traders from Rome and Greece in the 3rd century BC. During the 15th century, Madurai was one of several nayaka states under the rule of Vijayanagar. Upon the fall of that empire, the Nayaks of Madurai rose to power in southern India, frequently threatening the neighboring states of Tanjore and Travancore. In the 18th century, its own existence was threatened by the Nawab of Arcot and the Maratha Empire. In 1752, the kingdom passed into the hands of the British.;x
MAG;Magdeburg;x
MAG_DESC;The city of Magdeburg was founded in 805 by Charlemagne. It became an archbishopric in 968. In the next century, the city received a chart that would be a pattern for many others city charts in Germany. The city flourished through its trade to The Low Countries and the North Sea, becoming a member of the Hanseatic League in the 13th century. The city was brought to the Reformation by Martin Luther. It joined the Schmalkaldic League in 1531 and resisted to the Emperor, leading to the siege and the fall of the city in 1551 by Maurice of Saxony.  In 1630, during the Thirty Years War, the Imperial troops led by the count of Tilly sacked and burnt the city, slaughtering the inhabitants. After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Magdeburg was given to the Elector of Brandenburg.;x
MAH;Maratha Empire;x
MAH_DESC;By the middle of the 16th century the Maharashtra region of India was fragmented among several independent Muslim rulers, who fought each other endlessly but paid tribute to either the Mughals, Bijapur or Golconda. It was in the midst of this chaos that a great leader, Sivaji Bhonsle, was born in 1627. Sivaji was outraged at the oppression that the mainly Hindu people had to suffer at the hands their Muslim overlords. In a long series of campaigns, he showed astonishing prowess, and eventually founded a large Maratha Empire that would shake the Mughal Empire to its foundations. During the 18th century almost all of western and central India, as well as large segments of the north and east, had been brought under Maratha suzerainty.;x
MAI;Mainz;x
MAI_DESC;In 746, the city of Mainz was made the seat of the first German archbishop - St. Boniface. Subsequent archbishops acquired considerable territory around Mainz and in Franconia on both sides of the Main which they ruled as princes of the Holy Roman Empire. Very early on they received a vote in the Imperial elections and had precedence over the other Electors - they crowned the Kings of Germany. From the 16th century the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz was the ex officio archchancellor of the Holy Roman Empire. Under the rule of the Archbishops-Electors Mainz flourished as a commercial and cultural center. Johann Gutenberg (1397-1468) lived in Mainz which he founded the first printing enterprise in Europe.;x
MAJ;Majapahit;x
MAJ_DESC;Founded on the back of Srivijaya, Majapahit quickly became a great Hindu state. During its golden age (1350-1389) the great Majapahit empire controlled most of modern Indonesia. By the 15th century, the Majapahit princes were frequently at war over the succession. The war-torn state would limp along until the 16th cenutry, when the invading forces of the sultanate of Demak caused the remaining Majapahit nobles to flee to Bali.;x
MAL;Mali;x
MAL_DESC;The African empire of Mali was founded in the 11th century and unified in 1222 by Sundjata Keita. At its peak, under the rule of Mansa Musa, it extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Niger River. Its prosperity lied on the trade of gold, copper, salt and clothes through the Sahara desert. Tombuktu and Djenne became important center of trades but, moreover, intellectual centers with many schools and libraries. The empire of Mali disintegrated and was replaced By the Empire of Songhai in the late 15th century.;x
MAM;Mamluks;x
MAM_DESC;A Mamluk dynasty ruled in Egypt since 1250 and the fall of the Caliphate in Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 and their own victory against them in 1261 helped them to maintain their power. In the 14th and 15th century, the Mamluk empire had been stricken by two major plagues, major political unstability periods and the Timurid invasion in Syria. The empire knew a strong economic decline aggravated by the end of their monopoly on spices when Portuguese ships sailed around Africa. At the end of the 15th century, two major opponents appeared, the Ottoman Turks and the Persians. Cairo is captured in 1517 by Sultan Selim who put an end to the Mamluk dynasty in Egypt. The Mamluks stayed as a class, providing many local governors. One of them managed to proclaim himself Sultan in 1769, and if he fell in 1772, the Ottomans gave Egypt a great autonomy. The Mamluks were defeated by Bonaparte when he invaded Egypt and lost their power when Muhammad Ali became ruler of Egypt in 1805.;x
MAN;Mantua;x
MAN_DESC;The city is ancient as it was once an Etruscan settlement. The city passed in 1328 to the Gonzaga family, a Ghibelline supporter, who would hold it until 1708 with the title of Duke of Mantua. The family was a patron of arts in the Renaissance and gave to the city many palaces, frescoes and sculptures. During the Thirty Years War, the duchy was the place of a side war between France, Savoy and the Habsburgs for the succession of the ducal throne. Part of the deal was the Marquisate of Montferrat, a strategic place in the Piedmont, hold by Mantua. France won the peace in spite of a bad military campaign and Charles de Nevers, from a lower branch of the House of Gonzaga, became Duke of Mantua.  Mantua passed to Austria in 1708 after siding with France in the War of Spanish Succession. Mantua was taken by Bonaparte in 1797 and given back to Austria in 1815.;x
MAS;Masovia;x
MAS_DESC;Masovia is an historical region in east-central Poland, situated along the middle course of the Vistula River. It was originally inhabited by the Mazovian tribe and incorporated into the Polish state in the 10th century under the Piast ruler Mieszko I. During the Middle Ages, Masovia developed a distinctive identity and was governed by a separate branch of the Piast dynasty from 1138 until 1526, when it was fully integrated into the Polish Crown. The region's main city, Plock, served as the capital of Poland from 1079 to 1138 before losing prominence to Warsaw.;x
MAU;Maurya Empire;x
MAU_DESC;The Maurya Empire, established by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BC, was the first empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent. With its capital at Pataliputra (modern-day Patna), the empire expanded under Chandragupta and his successors, including Bindusara and the renowned Ashoka. Ashoka's reign marked a significant era of prosperity and cultural development, especially after his conversion to Buddhism following the brutal Kalinga War. He promoted non-violence, religious tolerance, and the spread of Buddhism across Asia. The Mauryan administration was highly organized, featuring a standing army and a sophisticated civil service. Despite its eventual decline around 185 BC, the Maurya Empire left a lasting legacy on Indian history and governance.;x
MCH;Manchu;x
MCH_DESC;The Manchu people were originally known as Jurchet, a tribe known in Asia since the 7th century. They were related to the Tungus and were a confederation of nomadic tribes in Manchuria. They swept over North China and Korea in the 13th century, overthrowing the local dynasties before being repelled by the Mongols in 1234. The Manchu settled in the Songhua River valley and developed a pastoral and agrarian civilization. In the late 16th century they began to unite under the authority of a single chief, Nurhachi. He reformed the social and military organization and invaded China in 1618. The Mandchus progressively took the power in China and created the Chinese Qing dynasty in 1646.;x
MDG;Madagascar;x
MDG_DESC;Madagascar, the world's fourth-largest island, is located off the southeastern coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean. It was first settled by Austronesian peoples from Southeast Asia around 700 AD, followed by Bantu migrants from Africa. This unique blend of cultures created the Malagasy people, whose language and traditions reflect both Asian and African influences. The island was a significant center for trade and piracy in the Indian Ocean during the medieval period. In the 19th century, the Merina Kingdom unified much of Madagascar before it was colonized by France in 1896.;x
MEA;Meath;x
MEA_DESC;Meath - known as the 'Royal County' - is a region in eastern Ireland with a rich historical legacy. It was originally part of the ancient Kingdom of Meath, which was established by the legendary king Túathal Techtmar in the first century. The kingdom was a significant political and cultural center, serving as the seat of the High Kings of Ireland at the Hill of Tara. In the medieval period, Meath was invaded by the Anglo-Normans, leading to the establishment of the Lordship of Meath by Hugh de Lacy in the late 12th century. The county was formally shired in 1297 and later divided into Meath and Westmeath in 1542. Today, Meath is celebrated for its historical sites, including Newgrange, Trim Castle, and the Hill of Tara, which reflect its storied past.;x
MEC;Mecklenburg;x
MEC_DESC;Mecklenburg was inhabited by Western Slavic peoples from the 7th to the 12th century. The land had been taken by Henry the Lion in the late 12th century and Christianized and settled by German and Flemish people. In 1348 Mecklenburg was raised as a duchy to be split in 1352 in Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Stargard. United in 1471, it split again in 1520, creating the duchy of Mecklenburg-Guestrow (and united again in 1610to be split in 1621). Both duchies embraced the Reformation and in spite of these dynastic reorganizations they were stable and flourishing. They maintained their independence, joining the Confederation of the Rhine in 1808 to be established as a Grand-Duchy in 1815.;x
MEI;Meissen;x
MEI_DESC;Meissen, a town in Saxony, was founded by King Henry I of Germany in 929. It became the seat of the Margraviate of Meissen in 968 and later passed to the House of Wettin in 1089. Meissen is renowned for its porcelain, with the first European hard-paste porcelain being produced there in 1710. The Meissen porcelain factory, established in the Albrechtsburg Castle, became a symbol of luxury and innovation, significantly influencing European ceramics.;x
MER;Mercenaries;x
MER_DESC;No description available.;x
MES;Mesopotamia;x
MES_DESC;Mesopotamia is an historical region located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and its name is reflected in that fact - meaning, literally 'between two rivers'. It is renowned for being the Cradle of Civilization, including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. These societies made significant advancements in writing, law, architecture, and agriculture, with notable inventions such as the wheel, cuneiform script, and the concept of time. Mesopotamia's fertile land and strategic location fostered the growth of cities like Ur, Uruk, Babylon, and Nineveh, which became centers of culture and power. The region's history spans from the early settlements around 10,000 BC to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, and the apogee of the Achaemenid Empire.;x
MEX;Mexico;x
MEX_DESC;After the final conquest of the lands of the Aztecs, the Spanish established a larged colonial empire under the name of New-Spain. The land would extend in what is now Mexico, Central America and most of the Southern United States in California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. After the initial explorations, came the times of the foundation of cities, the Christianization and the settling. The population would never be very large, benefiting to a few Spanish landholders and some Métis elite. Spain maintained a strong colonial power resented by the local population. Some reforms were brought but the resentment was growing. The first rebellions came in 1810 when Spain was invaded by the French armies but the independence was only recognized in 1821.;x
MGU;Mogadishu;x
MGU_DESC;The people known as the Zanj (a name given to them by the early Arab traders) have dominated the eastern African coastline for centuries, long before the arrival of Islam. The early tribal peoples and clans that make up this region are better known as the Swahili, which derives its name from the Arabic word 'sawahil' meaning 'the coast people'. From around 1200 to 1500, powerful Swahili city-states, most of them from the native Bantu tribes, began to emerge as thriving centers of commerce in the east African trade. Next to Kilwa, Mogadishu was the next powerful Zanj state. It derived its influence from its location in the north giving it contacts with the Arab world. Mogadishu rose in the 13th and 14th centuries only to gradually decline in the 15th century in comparison to the increasing importance of Kilwa and Mombasa.;x
MIN;(Undefined Nation);x
MIN_DESC;No description available.;x
MKS;Makassar;x
MKS_DESC;The kingdoms of Gowa and Tallo in Sulawesi were founded as a single kingdom in the early 14th century. It was split in the 15th century. They expanded around 1530 to the surrounding principalities. By the time the Portuguese arrived, in 1540, Gowa and Tallo were controlling the gold and spice trades and Makassar was the main harbour. The kingdoms became sultanates in the early 17th century in a way of choosing a Muslim preference for trade rather than trading with the newly arrived Dutch VOC. A struggle began only interrupted by three peace and trade treaties in 1637, 1655 and 1660. In 1666, the Dutch used the call for help of a rebellious kingdom to seize Makassar. The sultanate of Gowa fell in 1669, all fortresses were destroyed and the VOC was now controlling the spices trade.;x
MLC;Malacca;x
MLC_DESC;Malacca was founded around 1400 by a prince of Palembang refusing to be the vassal of the Javanese Majapahit Empire. Malacca claimed its suzerainty over Palembang without being able to enforce it. The city was quickly a major center of trade with China, Indonesia, India and the Middle East. The prince converted to Islam to help Malacca's trade with the Muslims traders and Islam propagated in Malay through Malacca. In 1511, the Portuguese Afonso de Albuquerque came from Goa in India and seized Malacca. The sultan fled to Johor and the friendly sultanates in Java tried unsuccessfully to take it back in the 16th century. Malacca's wealth was based on the Muslim trade and the Portuguese could not get the full wealth of the trade in the Malacca Straits. In 1641, the Dutch of the V.O.C. allied themselves with Johor and captured Malacca.;x
MLI;Malindi;x
MLI_DESC;The people known as the Zanj (a name given to them by the early Arab traders) have dominated the eastern African coastline for centuries, long before the arrival of Islam. The early tribal peoples and clans that make up this region are better known as the Swahili, which derives its name from the Arabic word 'sawahil' meaning 'the coast people'. From around 1200 to 1500, powerful Swahili city-states, most of them from the native Bantu tribes, began to emerge as thriving centers of commerce in the east African trade. The city of Malindi was founded about the same time as Mombasa and the two were always bitter rivals. However, Malindi never thrived as prosperously as Mombasa. When Portugal invaded in the late 15th century, Malindi gladly aided the Portuguese in destroying Mombasa.;x
MLL;Mallorca;x
MLL_DESC;The Kingdom of Mallorca was established in 1276 by James I of Aragon, also known as James the Conqueror, as part of his will to divide his territories. The kingdom included the Balearic Islands (Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, and Formentera), as well as territories on the mainland such as Roussillon and Cerdanya. Initially, it was an independent realm under James II of Mallorca, but it faced constant pressure from the Crown of Aragon. In 1344, the kingdom was forcibly reincorporated into the Crown of Aragon by Peter IV. Despite its relatively short existence, the Kingdom of Mallorca played a significant role in the Mediterranean politics of the 13th and 14th centuries.;x
MLO;Milan;x
MLO_DESC;An ancient and Celtic city originally, Milan became the capital of a duchy, created in 1395 for the Visconti family already holding the city since the 13th century.  Galeazzo Visconti, first duke of Milan, extended his duchy to Lombardia, creating one of the most powerful states in Italy. The duchy passed to the Sforzas by marriage with the last Visconti heir and war and conquest during the succession quarrel. The city flourished in the Italian Renaissance, the Sforzas being generous patrons of arts. The duchy was involved in the Italian Wars and was conquered by Spain in 1535. After the War of the Spanish Succession, in 1713, the duchy was given to Austria. Bonaparte conquered Milan and made it the capital of the Cisalpine Republic in 1797. Milan was given back to Austria in 1815.;x
MLW;Malwa;x
MLW_DESC;When Timur attacked Delhi in 1398, the governor of Malwa took the opportunity to proclaim himself Sultan of Malwa. The Sultanate expanded during the 15th century but fell to the Sultan of Gujarat in 1531 originally called for help and, in 1562, Akbar made Malwa a part of the Mughal Empire. When the Mughal Empire weakened in the 18th century, Marathas seized Malwa and subjugated it, forcing the population to pay a tribute. The Marathas ceded this area to the British in 1817.;x
MND;Maguindanao;x
MND_DESC;The Maguindanao Sultanate, established in the early 16th century, was a prominent Muslim state in the southern Philippines, centered on the region of present-day Maguindanao. Founded by Sharif Muhammad Kabungsuwan, a Muslim missionary from Johor, the sultanate played a crucial role in spreading Islam in Mindanao. It reached its zenith under Sultan Kudarat in the 17th century, who successfully resisted Spanish colonization efforts. The sultanate's influence waned in the late 18th century, but it remained a significant cultural and political entity in the region.;x
MNG;Ming;x
MNG_DESC;The Ming dynasty, ruling China from 1368 to 1644, was a period of native Han Chinese governance between the Mongol Yuan and Manchu Qing dynasties. Founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, who became Emperor Hongwu, the Ming era is noted for its significant cultural, economic, and political influence. The dynasty saw the construction of the Great Wall as it stands today, the flourishing of trade and exploration under Admiral Zheng He, and the production of exquisite porcelain. Despite its initial prosperity, the Ming dynasty eventually faced internal strife, fiscal troubles, and external threats, leading to its fall to, and the rise of, the Qing dynasty.;x
MNT;Montenegro;x
MNT_DESC;Montenegro, located in the western Balkans along the Adriatic Sea, has a rich history dating back to ancient Illyrian tribes. It became part of the Roman and later Byzantine empires. In the medieval period, the region was known as Zeta and later Crna Gora (Black Mountain), from which the name Montenegro is derived. Montenegro maintained a degree of autonomy under Ottoman suzerainty and was ruled by prince-bishops until it became a secular principality in 1852, finally obtaining full independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878.;x
MOD;Modena;x
MOD_DESC;Modena was founded as a Roman colony in 183 B.C. It became a bishopric in the 7th century. From 1288, Modena was ruled by the Este family. It became a duchy in 1452. The Duke of Modena was a vassal to the Holy Roman Emperor while being at the same time Duke of Ferrara and vassal to the Popes. Modena would become the capital when the Pope seized Ferrara. The ducal palace was completed in 1634. The house of Habsburg inherited the Duchy of Modena in late 18th century. During the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars, Modena became annexed to the Cisalpine Republic and later to the kingdom of Italy. The Duchy was given back to the Habsburgs in 1815.;x
MOG;Mughal Empire;x
MOG_DESC;The great Mongol heir Bâbur, founder of the Mughal Empire, was indeed very qualified for conquest. Descended from Timur by his father and from Genghis Khan by his mother he ruled the remains of the Timurid Empire from his capital in Kabul, constantly trying, and failing, to recapture the old capital of Samarkand from the Uzbeks. Disappointed, he turned to India, divided between several small kingdoms and sultanates which were constantly at one another's necks. He took advantage of the situation and before his death in 1530 he had established a powerful Empire in northern India on the ruins of the Sultanate of Delhi. The Empire continued to grow until it dominated almost all of India at the beginning of the 17th century, before its long period of decline set in.;x
MOL;Moldavia;x
MOL_DESC;In the 14th century, Moldavia was a federation of fiefdoms, vassalized to Hungary, Galicia or the Tatar Khanate. Expeditions led by Hungary reinforced the Hungarian influence but also opposition and Moldavian rebels managed to create a Voivodship in 1359. Under Stefan cel Mare (or Stephen the Great), the Voivodship of Moldavia extended to its maximum, repelling Hungarian, Poles and Tatars alike but also the newly arrived Ottomans, mainly with gold but also harbours on the Black Sea. In 1512, the principality must pay a tribute to the Ottoman Sultan to prevent being annexed and the Voivod had to be chosen by the Sultan. Moldavia was still under Turkish suzerainty in 1711 when the Ottomans declared war to Russia. The Voivod offered his help to Russia against the independence of Moldavia.  But the Ottomans won the war. In 1774, when Russia won the following war, Moldavia was still vassalized but concessions were offered to the Christian population. Northern Moldavia or Bucovina was seized by Austria in exchange for brokering the peace treaty.  Moldovia was several times more invaded during the Russo-Turkish wars and in 1812, with the Treaty of Bucharest, Eastern Moldavia was given to Russia, renaming it Bessarabia and the rest stayed in the Ottoman Empire.;x
MOM;Mombasa;x
MOM_DESC;The people known as the Zanj (a name given to them by the early Arab traders) have dominated the eastern African coastline for centuries, long before the arrival of Islam. The early tribal peoples and clans that make up this region are better known as the Swahili, which derives its name from the Arabic word 'sawahil' meaning 'the coast people'. From around 1200 to 1500, powerful Swahili city-states, most of them from the native Bantu tribes, began to emerge as thriving centers of commerce in the east African trade. Mombasa was found in the 12th century and rose in power because of its exportation of slaves and ivory. Its good harbor and flourishing trade with India helped it to rise to prominence in the 15th century. Although rivaled by Kilwa and Malindi, it would manage to become greater than the latter and survive longer against the Portuguese than the former.;x
MON;Mon;x
MON_DESC;Pegu was the center of one of the three chief states of Myanmar (Ava, Toungoo and Pegu) from the 14th to the late 15th century. In the 16th century it became the capital of a united Burmese Kingdom, but when it was destroyed in 1564 and again in 1599, the Burmese moved their capital to Ava. In the 18th century the Talaings rebelled against the Burmese and set up their capital at Pegu. The city was destroyed by the Burmese in 1757 but was later rebuilt as the center of a Burmese province. The city and province came under British rule in 1852.;x
MOR;Morocco;x
MOR_DESC;The city of Marrakech was founded in 1062 by the first ruler of the Almoravid dynasty. This dynasty built mosques, theologian schools and a center of commerce for the Maghreb and Sub-Saharan Africa. Merinid nomads captured the city in 1269 and created their own kingdom with Fezfor its capital. Both cities would become bitter rivals. In the 15th and 16th century, Marrakech rose again in power, becoming the Saadian capital. This new dynasty took over the northern part of what is now Morocco and fought against the Portuguese invaders. The decisive victory of Alcazarquivir in 1578 definitively repelled the Portuguese and killed their king leading to the annexation of Portugal by Spain two years later. In 1591, an expedition to the Songhai Empire would rise the Saadian dynasty to its peak.;x
MOS;Moscow;x
MOS_DESC;The city of Moscow was probably founded as a simple outpost of Vladimir-Suzdal. It is mentioned for the first time in the 12th century, and it was already a fortified city on a strategic position on the Moskva River. The Mongols conquered the area in 1234 and the Tatars burnt the city in 1238. The city was built again in the 14th century as the capital of a Russian principality vassalized to the Mongol Khans. Dmitri Donskoi was the first to bear the title Grand Duke of Moscow. Ivan III conquered the wealthy Novgorod in 1478, liberated the Grand-Duchy from the Mongol suzerainty in 1480 and proclaimed himself 'Tsar of all Rus'. From then on, Moscow would expand in all directions under the name of Russia.;x
MRE;Morea;x
MRE_DESC;The Despotate of Morea was a semi-autonomous province of the Byzantine Empire, established in 1349 by Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos. Located in the Peloponnese region of southern Greece, its capital was the fortified city of Mystras. The Despotate flourished as a cultural and intellectual center during the Palaiologan Renaissance, attracting scholars and artists. It played a crucial role in the Byzantine resistance against the Ottoman Turks until its conquest by Sultan Mehmed II in 1460.;x
MRV;Moravia;x
MRV_DESC;Moravia was initially inhabited by Celtic tribes and later became part of the Roman Empire. In the 9th century, it was the center of Great Moravia, a significant Slavic state that played a crucial role in the spread of Christianity in the region. After the fall of Great Moravia, the area came under the control of the Bohemian Crown and later the Habsburg Monarchy.;x
MSK;Minsk;x
MSK_DESC;Minsk, the capital of Belarus, has a rich and tumultuous history dating back to its first mention in 1067. Initially part of the Principality of Polotsk, it later became a major center within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century, and subsequently the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The city endured numerous occupations and devastations, including by the Crimean Tatars, French, Germans, and Poles.;x
MTR;Mataram;x
MTR_DESC;Despite the fact that Mataram was Islamic it still followed most of the Indo-Javanese traditions of the Hindu kingdoms of Java. In the royal palaces (kraton) of the reigning dynasties of Mataram an original model was developed combining animistic and Islamic rites and even European values. Mataram eventually had to face two new powers in order to unify the island: Bantam, the last coastal Sultanate, and the Dutch, who had landed for the first time on Java in 1596.  In For the Glory, Mataram represents not only itself, but the earlier Islamic kingdoms of Demak and Pajang, from which the sultans of Mataram claimed descent.;x
MUB;Shan States;x
MUB_DESC;The Shan are a Tai people who have lived in a patchwork of city states in the mountainous valleys between Kachin, Yunnan and Burma since the early Middle Ages. The most powerful Shan states were Mong Yang, Mong Kawng and Mong Mao, which competed for dominance of the region for centuries, before eventually uniting into a temporary confederation and conquering the Ava Kingdom in 1527. The following decades saw the collapse of the Shan confederation and its destruction by the Toungoo Empire in 1557, after which the Shan lost their independence.;x
MUL;Multan;x
MUL_DESC;The Multan Sultanate, also known as the Langah Sultanate, was a late-medieval kingdom established by the Langah clan in 1445. Centered on the city of Multan, in present-day Pakistan, it emerged following the decline of the Delhi Sultanate after Timur's invasion. The sultanate experienced its peak under Sultan Husayn I (1469-1498), who repelled invasions and fostered prosperity, attracting Baloch settlers to the region. The Langah rulers maintained control until 1526, when the sultanate was annexed by the nascent Mughal Empire.;x
MUN;Münster;x
MUN_DESC;Münster was a bishopric since Charlemagne. Its bishop was an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. The city was well located, on the roads to Cologne and to Frisia and it became a wealthy member of the Hanseatic League. The city embraced the Reformation in a radical way, claiming all properties, burning books and planning to capture the entire world. The Bishop of Münster and his Imperial allies besieged the city and captured it in 1535, processing their own purifications by means of slaughter. The Peace of Westphalia, ending the Thirty Years war in 1648 was signed in Münster. Münster was captured by Prussia in 1802 but recaptured by France and became the capital of the Kingdom of Westphalia. The Bishopric was given to the Prussians In 1816.;x
MUS;Muslim Nations;x
MUS_DESC;No description available.;x
MYS;Mysore;x
MYS_DESC;The city of Mysore was captured by the Sultanate of Delhi in 1313. The kingdom of Vijayanagar took it soon when Delhi was destroyed by Timur. Mysore remained a vassal state of Vijayanagar until the dissolution of that state in 1565 after the battle of Talikota. Mysore would then remain largely autonomous if only influenced by its powerful neighbours as the Moghul Empire, the Maratha Empire or later the British Empire.;x
NAF;North Africa;x
NAF_DESC;North Africa, encompassing modern-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, has a rich and diverse history shaped by various cultures and civilizations. Ancient North Africa was home to advanced societies like the Carthaginians and Numidians, and later became a vital part of the Roman Empire - providing at least one emperor in Septimius Severus. The arrival of Islam and the Arab-dominated Caliphate in the 7th century transformed the region culturally and politically, hastening the decline of both paganism and Christianity, as well as curtailing the power of the indigenous Berber peoples. During the later colonial era, North Africa was dominated by European powers - initially Spain and Portugal, and eventually France and Italy.;x
NAP;Naples;x
NAP_DESC;Charles I of Anjou was king of Sicily but angered the population in setting his capital in Naples and giving lands to his French lords. After the Sicilian Vespers insurrection in 1282, Charles of Anjou had to withdraw in Naples. Sicily proper passed to the house of Aragon and Charles of Anjou and later his son called themselves King of Naples. The kingdom was captured in 1443 by Alfonso V of Aragon, already king of Sicily, who proclaimed himself King of Two Sicilies. It gave a casus belli for the kings of France who used it for their Italian wars in the late 15th century and early 16th century. Naples remained in the House of Aragon and later of Spain and in 1713 of Austria. The Spanish Bourbon family got the throne of the Two Sicilies in 1738. Naples was conquered by the French during the Napoleonic wars, and freed itself in 1814 but was given back to the Bourbon family.;x
NAT;Natives;x
NAT_DESC;No description available.;x
NAV;Navarre;x
NAV_DESC;Between 1512 and 1515 Castile successfully invaded and annexed the southern half of the old kingdom of Navarre. The King moved his administration north but in 1589 France annexed that part as well. Though there were (and are) many rebellions in the Basque territories of Spain, Navarre would never again resurface as a nation.;x
NAX;Naxos;x
NAX_DESC;The Duchy of Naxos, also known as the Duchy of the Archipelago, was established in 1207 by the Venetian nobleman Marco Sanudo following the Fourth Crusade. Centered on the islands of Naxos and Paros, it included most of the Cyclades archipelago and represented a blend of Greek and Venetian culture. The duchy became a significant maritime state, facilitating Venetian trade routes in the Aegean Sea. It remained under Venetian control until 1537, when it became a tributary of the Ottoman Empire. The duchy was fully annexed by the Ottomans in 1579, although some islands retained Christian rule until the early 18th century.;x
NEP;Nepal;x
NEP_DESC;Nepal was unified into a centralized state by the great warrior-king Prithvi Narayan Shah in the mid-18th century, but before that had been a patchwork of petty kingdoms spread across the Himalayas from Tibet down to Bihar in India. The most important Nepali kingdom had been Khasa, ruled by the Malla dynasty, who were initially Tibetan Buddhists but had converted to Hinduism as their court and nobility had gradually Indianized over time. By the late Middle Ages, Khasa (later known as Gorkha) had become a thriving mountain kingdom and the northernmost bastion of Hindu religion and culture.;x
NIC;Nicaea;x
NIC_DESC;The Empire of Nicaea was a Byzantine Greek state established in 1204 following the Fourth Crusade's capture of Constantinople. Founded by Theodore I Laskaris, it became a refuge for Byzantine aristocracy and a center of resistance against the Latin Empire. The Nicaean Empire played a crucial role in preserving Byzantine traditions and governance during its existence. Under the leadership of the Laskaris and later the Palaiologos dynasties, it successfully recaptured Constantinople in 1261, restoring the Byzantine Empire until its eventual fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.;x
NIP;Japan;x
NIP_DESC;The Yamato clan unified central and western Japan in the 5th century, around the same time Buddhism was introduced. In 1192, after his final victory over his brother Yoshitsune, Minamoto Yoritomo was awarded the title Shogun, roughly meaning 'barbarian quelling generalissomo'. The title stuck, and the Shogun would be the real ruler of Japan for seven centuries. 1542 marked the opening of Japan to western powers like Portugal, England, Spain and the Dutch. The Jesuits arrived, and gained an ever growing number of converts, but decrees prohibiting Christianity were promulgated in 1612 and 1614, and the persecution of its adherents began immediately thereafter. Persecution became much more severe, until, at length, it became official policy to stamp out Christianity even at the sacrifice of trade. This policy became manifest with the seclusion orders of the 1630s. Thus, in 1635 Japanese were forbidden to make overseas voyages or to return to Japan from overseas, which was a severe blow to Japan's traders. Japan now entered a period of total isolationalism that would last well into the middle of the 19th century.;x
NOG;Nogai;x
NOG_DESC;The Nogai Horde, whose name came from Nogai Khan great great-grandson of Genghis Khan, was born of the disintegration of the Golden Horde, along with the other khanates. They lived east of the Volga River and north of the Caspian Sea, living as pastoral nomads and occasional raiders. They were soon opposed to the Kazakhs on their east to Russian on their west. The Russians successively conquered the Khanate of Kazan and the Khanate of Astrakhan and the Nogais lost the tribute from these countries. The Russian pressure grew in late 16th century and some Nogais had to migrate to Crimea or in Kazakhs lands. In the 17th century, the Kalmycks, warlike Buddhist Mongols, pushed from the east and invaded the Nogais' land, supported by Russia. The Nogais finished by settle with the Crimean Tatars in the 18th century, and when the Khanate of Crimea was conquered by Russia, they were finally pressured into the Caucasus region.;x
NOR;Norway;x
NOR_DESC;The kingdom of Norway, united in the Viking era, reached its greatest strength in the 13th century, when Iceland and several islands in the North Sea were still under Norwegian rule. However, after the ravages of the Black Plague in 1349 and 1350, the population in Norway was greatly reduced. The Norwegian nobility was greatly weakened by the catastrophe, and became international rather than national in its orientation. In 1397 Norway entered the Union of Kalmar as Queen Margrete became queen of Norway following the death of the last Norwegian king Olav IV. Together with the other two nations, Norway was at war with the Hansa in the 1420s and gradually succumbed to Danish influence and rule as the taxes from Norway were spent abroad. The Norwegian 'Riksraad' continued to elect foreign princes as kings including Christopher of Bavaria and finally Christian II of Denmark. By this time, the Union of Kalmar was just an empty name and Norway had become an integral part of Denmark.;x
NRM;Normandy;x
NRM_DESC;Raids of the Vikings, or Northmen, from the 8th century on, repeatedly devastated the Norman coast, each time moving farther inland. Finally the Frankish King Charles III the Simple ceded the territory to Rollo, the chief of the largest band of Vikings. The Vikings immigrated in large numbers to settle the country, and they adopted the French language, customs, and religion. These Vikings became known as Normans, and the region they settled became known as Normandy. In 1066, William, duke of Normandy and a distant successor to Rollo, invaded England. He became William I of England (William the Conqueror) and united the rule of England and Normandy in him. During the next four centuries both England and France battled for control over Normandy, until the French achieved permanent control in 1450 after their victory in the Battle of Formigny.;x
NUB;Nubia;x
NUB_DESC;The 4th century AD marked the beginning of the conversion of the Nubian people to Christianity. This era began with the establishment of the Christian kingdoms of Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia, which adopted Christianity through Byzantine and Coptic missionary efforts. The region saw the construction of numerous churches and monasteries, and the development of a unique Christian Nubian culture that blended local pagan traditions with exotic Christian practices. Christian Nubia maintained its religious and cultural identity for over a millennium, and despite the pressures of Islamic expansion from both the north (Egypt) and west (Kordofan), a patchwork of Christian kingdoms held on until their eventual decline and encroachment to the Funj Sultanate of Sennar in the 15th century.;x
NVG;Novgorod;x
NVG_DESC;Novgorod (new city) is one of the oldest cities in Russia, founded by the Varangians in the 9th century. Autonomous from Kiev in the 12th century, it evolved in a merchant republic, extending in all northern Russia to the Urals from the 12th century to the 15th century. Novgorod maintained its independence from the German knights, Sweden and the Mongols. Furs, salt and iron were traded, principally with the Hanseatic League, even if Novgorod never became a member of the League.  In the 14th century, Moscow was rebuilt after the destruction by the Tatars and rose as a major local power. Novgorod tried to find an alliance with Lithuania, but political troubles sparked about this alliance and Moscow took advantage of the opportunity. Ivan III of Moscow conquered the Republic of Novgorod in 1478.;x
OHI;Iroquois;x
OHI_DESC;The Iroquois were undoubtedly the fiercest warriors to roam the St. Lawrence and the northern New York state. They called themselves the Haudenosunee, meaning people of the long house, but their enemies referred to them as the Iroqu, an insult meaning 'rattlesnakes'. The French added 'ois' to make it Iroquois. The Iroquois Confederacy consisted of six nations: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. They maintained a wide trade network which the Europeans found useful, and subsequently became leading in the fur trade. The Iroquois village of Stadacona became the site of the first French trading post and later became known as Quebec. The Iroquois village of Hochelaga would become the site of Montreal. When the American Revolution came, the Iroquois sided with the British - a gamble that they unfortunately lost. Many were driven into Southern and Eastern Ontario and Quebec, and their power was forever broken. Despite their passion for war the Iroquois were primarily agrarian.;x
OLD;Oldenburg;x
OLD_DESC;Oldenburg became a county in the 12th century, vassal to the dukes of Saxony. The counts of Oldenburg became princes of the Empire when the Emperor Frederick I dismembered the duchy of Saxony in 1180. The county expanded slightly on the lands of rebellious Frisian lords in the 13th century. In 1448 Christian of Oldenburg became king of Denmark as Christian I. He let his county to his younger brother without trying to annex it to his kingdom. In the 16th century, the counts of Oldenburg became Protestant but stayed faithful to Charles V in the League of Schmalkalde. Oldenburg gained some more territories. Oldenburg stayed neutral in the Thirty Years war, while selling horse to the Imperials: the count managed to save his county from the usual slaughters in this war. When the line of the counts of Oldenburg became extinct in 1676, Oldenburg passed to Christian V of Denmark. In 1773 Christian VII exchanged Oldenburg for ducal Holstein with Grand Duke Paul I of Russia who gave it in turn to Frederick Augustus of Holstein-Gottorp, bishop of Lübeck. Oldenburg became a Duchy in 1777. It was annexed during the Napoleonic wars and liberated in 1813. The duchy became a Grand-Duchy.;x
OMA;Oman;x
OMA_DESC;Virtually cut off from the rest of the Arabian Peninsula by vast deserts, the Omani became prominent sailors and acquired an early maritime tradition. As they traveled and traded, the Omanis spread the message of Islam as well as Arab culture and language, leaving a deep impact on eastern Africa and reaching as far east as China. In the early 16th century, after the Portuguese under Vasco de Gama had discovered the sea route round the Cape of Good Hope to India they occupied Mascate for a century and a half in order to dominate the trade which had until then been an Omani monopoly. The Portuguese were expelled from Mascate in 1650 by Sultan bin Saif al-Yarubi, reaffirming for a time Omani power in the region.;x
ORI;Orissa;x
ORI_DESC;In the 13th and 14th centuries, Orissa resisted both the Muslim threat from Delhi and Bengal and the invasion from their Hindu fellow-believer of Vijayanagar.  The Ganga dynasty, famous for the architecture and arts, was followed by the Surya dynasty in 1435. Orissa expanded on the expense of the Muslims, defeating Bengal and expanding to the Ganga River. Orissa finally lost its independence to the Afghan rulers of Bengal when its king died in 1568. The Mughal emperor, Akbar, annexed orissa in 1592.;x
ORL;Orléans;x
ORL_DESC;The city of Orléans and its surrounding province - the Orléanais - constituted part of the small nucleus of the royal domain, and was often given in appanage as a duchy to the eldest brother of the king of France and to his descendants. In the Wars of Religion during the 16th century, the city was briefly made the headquarters of the Huguenots and was besieged in by Catholic forces in 1563. Orléans remained in Catholic hands until the Edict of Nantes in 1598. During the 17th and 18th centuries the city was a prosperous industrial and commercial center.;x
OYO;Oyo;x
OYO_DESC;The Oyo Empire, a prominent Yoruba state in West Africa, was established in the 14th century by Oranmiyan, a prince of the Yoruba Kingdom of Ile-Ife. Located in present-day southwestern Nigeria, Oyo became a dominant force in the region through its strategic use of cavalry and effective administrative structure. At its height between the 17th and 18th centuries, the empire controlled vast territories, including parts of modern-day Benin. Oyo's political system featured a powerful king - the Alaafin - and a complex council of chiefs known as the Oyo Mesi. The empire's influence waned in the 19th century due to internal strife and external pressure from European colonial powers, leading to its eventual collapse in 1896.;x
PAL;Palembang;x
PAL_DESC;Palembang succeeded the glorious Kingdom of Srivijaya, once the greatest power in Indonesia. At one time the unquestioned center for trade, culture and commerce, it declined rapidly during the 14th century, and by the 15th century it was a shadow of its former glory, barely capable of breaking away from the disintegrating Majapahit Empire. Palembang only began recovering after the introduction of Islam in the early 16th century, though it wasn't enough to save them from the invasion of treasure-hunting Europeans. The city and Kingdom of Jambi in central Sumatra is positioned on the busy sea route between China and India, and it played a major part in early maritime trade. Records show Jambi to have been the original capital of the Malaya Kingdom. The ancient Hindu - Buddhist Kingdom of Sriwijaya also had its capital in Jambi at one time. The relationship between Melayu and Sriwijaya was a very close one, although there were some clearly period of Malay independence when Sriwijaya was based in nearby Palembang. As well as functioning as an entreport, Jambi also produced its own exports including a variety of tree resins for use as incense, as well as cloves, tortoise-shell, gardenia flowers and cardamom. From Arab traders it imported cotton, fabrics and sword blades, from China silk gauzes and thread, the latter possibly used in the manufacturer of silk brocades decorated in gold supplementary weft, the songket for which the Malay world later became famous.;x
PAP;Papal States;x
PAP_DESC;'Lo Stato della Chiesa', the Papal States or the Pontifical States, was allegedly formed by a gift of Roman Emperor Constantine in 335, actually a forged document from the 8th century. With the disintegration of the Roman Empire, the Popes gained more and more temporal powers in and around Rome. In 754, the Frankish King Pepin gave to the Pope lands taken from the Lombards against the legitimacy of his line as King of the Franks. The lands grew steadily especially in the 16th century when the Popes opposed France in the Italian Wars, gaining Parma, and when later Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI, conquered Romagna and Marche. The Papal States were invaded during the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars and the Pope was ordered to stop his temporal power to only keep the spiritual power. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 would reestablish the Papal States.;x
PAR;Parma;x
PAR_DESC;An ancient city, Parma had been founded by the Etruscans. A bishopric was created in the 7th century and Charlemagne gave the authority on the city and the surrounding area to the bishop.  The city became a free city in the 12th century and was ruled by the Visconti family since 1346 and by marriage and conquest by the Sforza family since 1447. Ludovico il Moro fought against the French invasion in the Italian Wars but couldn't prevent the occupation of the city in 1500. Parma belonged to the Papal States after the French were expelled and in 1545, Pope Paul III created a Duchy for his son Pier Luigi Farnese. The Farnese family would rule Parma until 1731 when it was given to the house of Bourbon. During the Napoleonic wars Parma was a French department at first and later a duchy. In 1814, the duchy was given to Maria Luigia of Austria, Napoleon's wife.;x
PEG;Sukhothai;x
PEG_DESC;The Sukhothai Kingdom, established in 1238, is often regarded as the first independent Thai kingdom. It emerged when local Tai leaders, led by Si Inthrathit, revolted against Khmer rule. The kingdom flourished under King Ramkhamhaeng (1279-1298), who expanded its territory and introduced Theravada Buddhism and the Thai script. Sukhothai's golden age saw the development of distinctive Thai art and architecture, much of which is preserved in the Sukhothai Historical Park, a UNESCO World Heritage site. The kingdom's influence waned in the late 14th century, and it was eventually annexed by the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1438.;x
PER;Persia;x
PER_DESC;Persia, or Iran ('land of the Aryans'), is a nation with a history long enough to rival the Greek, and like the Greeks, the Persian people were oppressed by foreign powers for centuries. The old Persian Empire quickly fell to the fanatic Muslims hordes that rode out of the Arabian peninsula in the 7th century, and Persia remained a part of the Caliphate until its fall to the Mongols in the mid-13th century. The Mongols ruled Persia as part of the Il-Khanate until Tamerlane conquered that in the late 14th century. The Timurid realm proved unstable, and the Persians soon found themselves governed by the Aq Qoyunlu, whose realm in turn crumbled when the great Ismail Safavid, himself of Turkish origin, rebelled and took control of the whole region. Despite his suppression of sunni muslims and despite his Turkish background, Ismail was hailed as a saviour by the Persians. Safavid Persia endured until 1736, despite the incessant internal and external pressure.;x
PET;Petra;x
PET_DESC;Petra, an ancient city in present-day Jordan, was established around the 4th century BC by the Nabataeans, an Arab Bedouin tribe. Renowned for its stunning rock-cut architecture and advanced water management system, Petra thrived as a major trading hub connecting the East and West. The city reached its zenith under Nabataean rule before falling to the Romans in 106 AD. Over time, Petra's significance waned, and it was largely abandoned by the 8th century. Rediscovered in 1812 by Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, Petra is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and considered a wonder of the world.;x
PEU;Peru;x
PEU_DESC;Peru, located in western South America, boasts a rich history that spans over 15 millennia. It was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the world's oldest, and later the Chavín, Moche, and Nazca cultures. The Inca Empire, with its capital at Cuzco, emerged in the 15th century as the largest and most sophisticated pre-Columbian civilization in the Americas. Spanish conquistadors, led by Francisco Pizarro, conquered the Inca Empire in 1533, establishing the Viceroyalty of Peru, which became a major center of Spanish colonial power. Peru declared independence from Spain in 1821, achieving it fully after the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824.;x
PFA;Palatinate;x
PFA_DESC;The Rhenish Palatine was established in the 12th century. The power of its rulers rarely extended far beyond the valley of the middle Rhine, but they nevertheless enjoyed great prestige as Imperial Electors. The capital at Heidelberg became one of the centers of Reformation and Renaissance in Germany. The Counts of the Palatinate were among the leading Protestant Princes of Germany. This led to the selection of Elector Frederick V as King of Bohemia in 1619, but he was quickly driven out by Catholic forces. The country suffered heavily in the Thirty Years War, and although the Counts Palatinate were reestablished in their country in 1648 they never again played an important role in German politics.;x
PIC;Picardy;x
PIC_DESC;Picardy, an historical region in northern France, has a long and interesting history. It was part of the Frankish Empire from the 5th century and later became a significant region within the Kingdom of France following the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The name 'Picardy' first appeared in the early 13th century, referring to lands where the Picard language was spoken. Throughout the Middle Ages, Picardy was a battleground for numerous conflicts, including the Hundred Years' War and the Jacquerie peasant revolt.;x
PIR;Pirates;x
PIR_DESC;No description available.;x
PIS;Pisa;x
PIS_DESC;Pisa's history dates back to ancient times, with evidence of Etruscan and Roman settlements. Pisa flourished as a maritime republic in the 11th and 12th centuries, becoming a powerful trading and naval center. The city played a significant role in the Crusades, securing valuable commercial positions in the Mediterranean. Despite its defeat by Genoa in the Battle of Meloria in 1284, Pisa remained an important cultural and economic hub. Today, Pisa is celebrated for its rich architectural heritage, including the Piazza dei Miracoli, which houses the Leaning Tower, the Cathedral, and the Baptistery.;x
POD;Podlasia;x
POD_DESC;Podlasia is an historical region in northeastern Poland, characterized by its diverse cultural heritage and strategic location. The region's name is believed to derive from the Slavic word for 'forest' - reflecting its lush landscapes. Historically, Podlasia was a melting pot of various ethnic groups, including Poles, Belarusians, Lithuanians, and Tatars. It became a significant part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The region experienced numerous conflicts and changes in sovereignty, particularly during the partitions of Poland and the Napoleonic Wars.;x
POI;Poitou;x
POI_DESC;Poitou, an historical region in west-central France, derives its name from the ancient Gallic tribe of Pictones. It was an important part of Roman Aquitania and later became a significant region within the Frankish Empire. Throughout the Middle Ages, Poitou was a contested territory, witnessing key battles such as the Battle of Vouillé in 507 and the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. The region was ruled by the counts of Poitiers, who also held the title of Duke of Aquitaine. Poitou experienced religious turmoil during the French Wars of Religion and played a notable role in the Huguenot movement. In the modern era, it was a center of resistance during the Vendée Revolt in the French Revolution.;x
POK;Polotsk;x
POK_DESC;Polotsk, one of the oldest cities in Belarus, was first mentioned in historical records in 862. Situated on the Dvina River, it became a significant center of power in the early medieval period, and the capital of the Principality of Polotsk. The city was known for its strategic importance and cultural influence, playing a crucial role in the development of Eastern Slavic culture and Christianity. Polotsk's most notable ruler, Prince Vseslav, reigned from 1044 to 1101 and significantly expanded its influence. The city later became a vassal of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1307, enjoying local autonomy until the 1390s. It was fully incorporated into Lithuania in 1504 as the Polotsk Voivodeship, at which point it ceased to exist as a distinct entity.;x
POL;Poland;x
POL_DESC;The first king of Poland was Boleslas I in 1025. The kingdom was Christian and recognized by the Holy Roman Empire and the Pope. On the margin of the Christian world it was facing the Pagan world but also the 'Drang nach Osten' (march to the East) of the Germanic settlers led by the Empire or by the Teutonic Knights. These latter created a vast state in the north. Their power was broken by their defeat in the battle of Tannenberg, in 1410, uniting Pole and Lithuanian knights and also Bohemian and Tatar mercenaries.  The Teutonic Order passed under Pole suzerainty in 1466. The kings of Poland became shortly kings of Bohemia and of Hungary and in 1569, Poland reached its peak with the personal union with Lithuania, creating the largest country in Europe. In 1683, John III Sobieski repelled the Ottoman offensive. But the country was already declining, lacking a politic stability. The elective monarchy, the right of veto (liberum veto) given to every member of the Sejm (Diet or parliament), the support given by foreign nations to different factions prevented to act decisively when facing national crises or invasions. It led to the final destruction of Poland through three partitions in the 18th century.;x
POM;Pomerania;x
POM_DESC;Pomerania became a polish province during the 10th century, when the Piast dynasty accomplished its political unification when it was formerly divided among local nobles. At the beginning of 11th century, Poland was no longer able to maintain her rule there and Pomerania remained mainly autonomous for nearly a century when the Polish rulers came back, dividing Pomerania between an eastern Polish province and a western Duchy. The latter was ruled by the Slavic Griffin dynasty until the 17th century, maintaining its autonomy while submitting from time to time to Poland, Denmark, Brandenburg, Saxony or the Holy Roman Empire. The Duchy was converted to the Christianity in the 13th century and the population became more and more Germanic while the rulers were still Polish. The Elector of Brandenburg acquired the Duchy in 1637 when the last Polish duke died without issue, but the area had been conquered by the Swedish who seized Stettin in 1631 and Sweden received Western Pomerania by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.;x
POR;Portugal;x
POR_DESC;Portugal emerged as a nation state in the early 12th century and ranks as one of the world's longest established countries. In 1143 Portugal was raised to the status of a kingdom. Dom Afonso Henriques became King of an independent Portugal. He had taken three quarters of the present day Portugal from the Muslims, including Lisbon. After his death in 1185 the conquest was completed by his successors. Afonso III expanded this Kingdom southward to the Algarve in 1249 and under João I Portuguese sailors began to explore the African coast and the Atlantic. Its boundaries have been unchanged since the 13th century. The 15th century was Portugal's Age of Discovery. First it was Madeira Island then the Azores Cape Bojador and Cape Verde. Then the Portuguese explorers reached Africa, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and gave Portugal its own route to India. Vasco de Gama reached India establishing Portuguese colonies and Pedro Cabral discovered Brazil. Other Portuguese explorers reached the Far East China and Japan. For that brief moment in time Portugal was the richest country in Europe.;x
PRG;Paraguay;x
PRG_DESC;Paraguay, a landlocked country in south-central South America, has a complex and turbulent history. It was part of the Spanish Empire until it gained independence in 1811. The country endured significant hardships during the 19th century, particularly the devastating War of the Triple Alliance (1864-1870) against Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, which resulted in massive population and territorial losses.;x
PRL;Pomerelia;x
PRL_DESC;Pomerelia, also known as Eastern Pomerania, is an historical region located on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea in northern Poland. It has been inhabited since ancient times, with evidence of the Pomeranian culture dating back to around 500 BC. Throughout its history, Pomerelia has seen various rulers and influences, including the Teutonic Knights who annexed it in the early 14th century. The region was later reintegrated into Poland in 1466 and became part of Royal Prussia. Pomerelia's largest and most important city was Danzig (today Gdansk), which has played a key role in the region's economic and cultural development.;x
PRM;Permia;x
PRM_DESC;Permia, also known as the Principality of Great Perm, was a medieval Komi-Permyak state located in the Upper Kama region of what is now the Perm Krai in Russia. Established in the 14th century, it emerged as a distinct entity from the Novgorod Republic. The principality was known for its strategic position and rich natural resources, which facilitated trade and cultural exchanges with nearby Komi and Tatar rulers. Great Perm maintained a degree of autonomy under Muscovite rule until it was fully annexed by the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1505. The region's capital was Cherdyn, and it played a significant role in the spread of Christianity in the area - largely due to the missionary efforts of St. Stephen of Perm.;x
PRO;Provence;x
PRO_DESC;The major part of Provence, held by the house of Aragón, in 1246 passed to the Angevin dynasty of Naples through marriage and under their rule the towns became virtually independent republics. In 1481 Provence was willed to the king of France, and its union to the crown was effected on the condition that Provence keep its administrative autonomy - a condition that was poorly honored.;x
PRT;Porto;x
PRT_DESC;Porto, the second-largest city in Portugal, boasts a vibrant history that dates back to its origins as a Roman outpost known as Portus Cale. Situated along the Douro River, Porto flourished as a major trading port and shipbuilding center during the 14th and 15th centuries. It was from Porto that Prince Henry the Navigator set sail in 1415, marking the beginning of the Portuguese Age of Discovery. The city is renowned for its production of port wine, which has been a significant export since the 17th century and was a popular alternative to French wine in Britain during the Napoleonic Wars.;x
PRU;Prussia;x
PRU_DESC;The area called Prussia was at first a geographic region inhabited by Balt people called Borus. These pagans were fought by the duchy of Mazovia whose Duke Conrad I invited the Teutonic Knights in the 13th century. The Teutonic Order led a crusade and established a Christian state. Germanic settlers replaced the original population. In 1525, the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, Albrecht of Hohenzollern, embraced the Protestant faith and created Ducal Prussia as a hereditary duchy, vassal to the still Catholic Poland. In 1618, the Duchy of Prussia passed to Albert-Frederick, the Elector of Brandenburg, creating a personal union. After the invasion of Poland by Sweden in 1657, Poland surrendered its suzerainty on Prussia. In the 17th century the immigration grew from the Thirty Years War and from the French repression on Protestant people. In 1701, the Emperor allowed Frederick of Brandenburg to crown himself King 'in' Prussia that the new Frederick I of Prussia quickly translated in King 'of' Prussia. This king made Prussia a military country, with one of the most powerful army of the time. Prussia grew to become the second Germanic power next to the Austrian Emperor.;x
PSK;Pskov;x
PSK_DESC;The city of Pskov was founded as an outpost of Novgorod in 903. However, Pskov won its independence from Novgorod in 1348. The city followed Novgorod's example by severely restricting the power of its prince. The principality produced a code of law in 1397 that was used throughout Russia. Although it was closer to Novgorod it often looked to Moscow for protection from the expansionist powers of the Baltic rim, especially as the Teutonic Knights. It was finally absorbed into Moscow in 1511.;x
PUE;Puerto Rico;x
PUE_DESC;Puerto Rico, an island in the northeastern Caribbean, has a rich history shaped by various cultures and influences. Originally inhabited by the Taíno people, it was claimed by Spain in 1493 during Christopher Columbus' second voyage. The island became a crucial military and economic outpost for the Spanish Empire, enduring numerous attacks from rival European powers. In 1898, following the Spanish-American War, Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States.;x
QAR;Black Sheep;x
QAR_DESC;The Qara Qoyunlu ('Black Sheep') were a Turkmen tribal federation that ruled Azerbaijan and Iraq, originally vassals of the Jalayirids of Baghdad and Tabriz. Routed by Tamerlane the Qara Qoyunlu re-established themselves in Tabriz from 1406. Baghdad was captured in 1410 and there was expansion into Persia. In 1468, however, the Qara Qoyunlu had been defeated and overrun by their mortal enemies from the north - the Aq Qoyunlu ('White Sheep').;x
QNG;Qing;x
QNG_DESC;The Qing dynasty, the last imperial dynasty of China, ruled from 1644 to 1912. Established by the Manchus, it succeeded the Ming dynasty and expanded China's territory to its greatest extent, incorporating regions like Taiwan, Tibet, Xinjiang, and Mongolia. The Qing era was marked by initial prosperity and cultural achievements, particularly under emperors Kangxi and Qianlong. However, the dynasty faced significant challenges in its later years, including internal rebellions, foreign invasions, and the Opium Wars, which weakened its control. The Qing dynasty ultimately fell in 1912, leading to the establishment of the Republic of China.;x
QUE;Québec;x
QUE_DESC;The French explorer Jacques Cartier first sailed up the St. Lawrence River in 1534 and arrived in the land that would later bear the name New France. Settlement of the region did not begin until the early 17th century, when Samuel Champlain founded Quebec ('where the river narrows') - the first permanent French settlement in the New World. Over the next century the French gradually settled along the banks of the St. Lawrence, where their long-lot settlement pattern exists to this day. In 1759 Quebec was lost to the British on the Plains of Abraham - an event that would ensure British hegemony in North America and indirectly lead to the American revolution.;x
RAG;Ragusa;x
RAG_DESC;The City of Ragusa was probably founded after southern Slavs and Avars raided and destroyed the Roman city of Epidaur in the year 614. It is mentioned for the first time in the year 1189 in the trade agreement between the Bosnian ruler Kulin Ban and the Ragusan republic. In 1205 it was vassalized by the Venetians and remained a Venetian subject nation until 1358. In 1419 it was vassalized again, this time by Hungary. Trade increased with the Ottoman Empire and relationships with the Venetians remained strained.;x
RAJ;Rajputana;x
RAJ_DESC;Rajputana was a region in north-western India made up of multiple principalities warring with both themselves and their neigbors. The Rajputanian religion, although Hindu in orgin, is considered by the Rajputs to be above the other Hindu religons which caused constant rebellion, espicially amongst the nobility. During the 15th century they acheived their greatest height of military power, greater than any other in the region until the arrival of the Mughal Empire under Bâbur.;x
RAM;Ramazan;x
RAM_DESC;Ramazan Beg, from the Oghuz Turks, founded the Turkish emirate of Ramazan in 1352, in southern Turkey, around Adana. He had been supported by the Mamluk Sultan and led his clan from Syria to the Cilician lands of the Armenians. The new dynasty soon tried to break free from the Mamluk domination. They failed and Ramazan became a principality directly ruled by the Mamluks. The area became of strategical importance when the Ottomans began to make war against the Mamluks. The Ottomans used the local opposition to the Mamluk rule. The Ottoman victory in Syria in 1515 influenced Ramazan towards the Ottomans and from then on, the Ramazan ruler was appointed by the Ottoman Sultan. Ramazan was annexed to the Ottoman Empire in 1608 and the Ramazan dynasty produced many governors for the Empire from the Balkans to Asia.;x
REB;Peasant Rebels;x
REB_DESC;No description available.;x
RMN;Romania;x
RMN_DESC;Romania, located in Southeastern Europe, has a rich history shaped by various cultures and empires. The region was originally inhabited by the Dacians, who were conquered by the Romans in 106 AD, leading to the formation of the Roman province of Dacia. Over the centuries, Romania experienced invasions and influences from the Goths, Huns, Slavs, and Magyars. In the Middle Ages, the principalities of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania emerged, each playing crucial roles in resisting Ottoman expansion. These principalities united in 1859, forming the basis of modern Romania, which gained full independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877.;x
ROM;Romagna;x
ROM_DESC;Romagna, an historical region in northern Italy, corresponds to the southeastern part of present-day Emilia-Romagna. Its name originates from the Latin 'Romania' - referring to lands inhabited by Romans. Romagna has been inhabited since the Paleolithic age, with significant influences from the Umbri, Etruscans, and Gauls. During the Roman era, it became a crucial part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, serving as a center of Byzantine administration. The region experienced various rulers, including the Lombards and Franks, before becoming part of the Papal States. In the 19th century, Romagna was integrated into the new Kingdom of Italy, contributing to its rich cultural and historical tapestry.;x
RUS;Russia;x
RUS_DESC;In 862 the political entity known as Kievan Rus was established by Vikings from Sweden along their trade route in what is now Ukraine. In the 10th century Christianity became the state religion under Vladimir, who studied both Churches, but chose to adopt the Greek Orthodox rites. The Mongol invasion in the 13th century shattered Kievan Rus and its people were made thralls to the invaders and cruelly oppressed. As Mongol unity dissolved over the next two centuries, Moscow gradually became the dominant principality and was able through diplomacy and conquest to establish suzerainty over European Russia. Ivan III (1462-1505) married the Byzantine princess Zoe Paleologus in a diplomatic move aimed at gaining prestige for his country. He could now refer to Russia as the Third Rome, and heir to the Byzantine tradition (even if the kings and princes of Europe were not impressed). As century later the famous Romanov dynasty was established at the end of the Time of Troubles by Tsar Mikhail in 1613. During Peter the Great's reign (1689-1725) Russia began a process of modernization and European influences spread in Russia. Peter created Western-style military forces, subordinated the Russian Orthodox Church hierarchy to the Tsar, reformed the entire governmental structure and established the beginnings of a Western-style education system.;x
RYA;Ryazan;x
RYA_DESC;Ryazan was one of the many principalities that emerged from the ruins of Kievian Rus in the aftermath of the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. For most of its history it remained a vassal state to the Kahn of the Golden Horde. It was unfortunate in that it laid near the invasion routes to Moscow and the other northern principalities, thus making it more willing to negotiate than fight, even after the Grand Duchy of Moscow declared independence from the Khan. Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow, inherited half of the principality in 1500. The other half was absorbed by the tsar in 1511 and Ryazan became part of the new Russian nation.;x
RYU;Ryukyu;x
RYU_DESC;The Ryukyu Kingdom, located in the Ryukyu Islands between Japan and Taiwan, was established in the 15th century and played a pivotal role in regional maritime trade. Unified by King Sho Hashi in 1429, the kingdom thrived as a tributary state of Ming China, facilitating trade between China, Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asia. Despite its small size, the Ryukyu Kingdom developed a unique culture, blending influences from its trading partners. The kingdom's independence ended in 1879 when it was annexed by Japan and transformed into Okinawa Prefecture.;x
SAC;Saxony;x
SAC_DESC;In 1356 the duke of Saxe-Wittenberg was granted the permanent rank of Elector. Electoral Saxony, as his territory was called, was a relatively small area along the middle Elbe. To the south of Electoral Saxony extended the margraviate of Meissen, ruled by the increasingly powerful house of Wettin. The margraves of Meissen acquired, in the 13th and 14th centuries, the larger parts of Lower Lusatia, Thuringia and the intervening territories and in 1423 Margrave Frederick the Warlike also added Electoral Saxony, becoming Elector Frederick I. In 1485 the lands of House Wettin were partitioned between two sons of Elector Frederick II and the division came to be permanent. Ernest, founder of the Ernestine branch of Wettin, received Electoral Saxony with Wittenberg and most of the Thuringian lands. Albert, founder of the Albertine branch, received ducal rank and the Meissen territories including Dresden and Leipzig. Duke Maurice of Saxony, a grandson of Albert and a Protestant, received the Electoral title in the 16th century and it was held by the Albertine branch until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.;x
SAM;Samogitia;x
SAM_DESC;Samogitia is an historical and ethnographic region in northwestern Lithuania, and its name means 'lowlands' - distinguishing it from the 'highlands' of neighboring Aukstaitija. The region has a rich history, marked by its steadfast pagan resistance to the Teutonic Knights during the medieval period, notably winning the Battle of Durbe in 1260. The Duchy of Samogitia maintained a high degree of autonomy within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania until the Union of Lublin in 1569, at which point it became a province of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The region was known for its distinct culture, language, and traditions, which have been preserved over centuries.;x
SAR;Sardinia;x
SAR_DESC;In 1353, Pere IV of Aragon granted legislative autonomy to the kingdom of Sardinia but from 1365 to 1409 the kings or giudici of Arborea - Mariano IV, Ugone III, Mariano V, and Guglielmo III succeeded in occupying very nearly all of Sardinia except the Castel of Cagliari and Alghero. In 1409 Marti the Younger, king of Sicily and heir to Aragon, defeated the giudicale Sardinians at Sanluri and once and for all conquered the entire land. Shortly afterwards he died of malaria in Cagliari without issue.;x
SAV;Savoy;x
SAV_DESC;The surprisingly resilient state of Savoy was forged by Humbert the Whitehanded, a lord of Arles, out of the various feudal territories in the region. Under Amadeus VIII in the early 15th century, Savoy became a powerful duchy extending far into France, Italy, and Switzerland. By the beginning of the 16th century the rule of the dukes had weakened, and Savoy fell under Swiss and French dominance. The great duke Emmanuel Philibert (Ironhead) greatly restored the territory and fortunes of the border duchy and moved the ducal residence to Turin in 1559, making Savoy more of an Italian than a French state. When Victor Amadeus II acquired the title king of Sardinia in 1713, Savoy became a part of a united kingdom. Annexed by France in 1792, Savoy was returned to Sardinia in 1815.;x
SCO;Scotland;x
SCO_DESC;Scotland as a national entity arose through the union of the kingdoms of Alba and Strathclyde in the mid-11th century. Ever since that time, Scotland's history has been one of action and reaction against her more powerful neighbor England. In 1174 Scotland became a vassal of England but broke loose a few years later. Unfortunately the terms of the release were vague and the kings of England retained a tenuous - and sometimes not so tenuous - hold on their northern neighbour, which had to struggle in the face of near impossible odds to retain its independence. Scottish independence, or at least semi-autonomy, came to a final end in 1707, when its lords accepted the Act of Union and formed Great Britain together with England.;x
SEI;Styria;x
SEI_DESC;Styria, a picturesque region in southeastern Austria, has a rich history dating back to ancient times. Originally inhabited by Celtic tribes, it became part of the Roman provinces of Noricum and Pannonia. During the early Middle Ages, the area saw the settlement of Slavs and later came under the control of the Bavarians and Franks. The March of Styria was established in the 10th century as a defensive frontier against the Magyars. It evolved into a duchy in 1180 and played a significant role within the Holy Roman Empire. Styria's strategic location and abundant natural resources, including iron and timber, contributed to its economic and cultural development under the Habsburg Monarchy.;x
SEL;Seljuk Empire;x
SEL_DESC;The Seljuk Empire was established in 1037 by the Oghuz Turks under the leadership of Tughril Beg, and became a significant medieval Sunni Muslim empire that spanned from Anatolia to the Hindu Kush. Known for its cultural and political influence, the Seljuk Empire played a crucial role in the spread of both Islam and Persian culture (which, though originally Turks, they heavily adopted) across the Middle East. The empire reached its zenith under the rule of Alp Arslan and Malik Shah, who expanded its territories and solidified its power. The Seljuks are also remembered for their victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which dealt a mortal blow to the Byzantine Empire and marked the beginning of Turkish dominance in Anatolia. Despite their collapse in the late 12th century, the Seljuks' legacy continued to influence the region for centuries thereafter.;x
SER;Serbia;x
SER_DESC;The Serbs, a Slavic people, settled in what is now Serbia between the 1st and 5th centuries. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the Serbs used the weakening of the Byzantine Empire to get lands as far south as Greece. Under Emperor or Tsar Stephen Dušan,in mid-14th century, Serbia was the most powerful empire in the Balkans. Unfortunately, his successors were not as brilliant and the Ottoman Turks began to be a serious threat. A succession of defeats led to the vassalisation of Serbia by the Ottomans. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans were free to move to the north and Serbia was annexed in 1459. Belgrade, held by Hungary, fell to the Ottomans in 1521. During three centuries, Ottomans would rule Serbia in spite of several Austrian unsuccessful offensives. Two insurrections occurred in the early 19th century, supported by Austria who had promised a large autonomy in the Austrian Empire, if they were successful. In 1804 it failed, but in 1815, the second insurrection allowed the creation of a Principality of Serbia.;x
SEV;Seville;x
SEV_DESC;The Kingdom of Seville, established in 1248 following the Christian reconquest led by Ferdinand III of Castile, was a territorial jurisdiction of the Crown of Castile. It encompassed much of present-day Andalusia, including the provinces of Seville, Huelva, and Cádiz. The kingdom flourished as a significant cultural and economic center, benefiting from its strategic location and fertile lands. Seville itself became a hub of commerce and exploration during the Age of Discovery, particularly after the establishment of the Casa de Contratación in 1503, which regulated trade with the New World. The Kingdom of Seville remained an important administrative region until the territorial division of Spain in 1833.;x
SHA;Shawnee;x
SHA_DESC;The name Shawnee is derived from the Algonquin word shawun, meaning 'Southerner'. They usually preferred to call themselves the Shawano. The Shawnee considered the Lenape of Delaware as their grandfathers and the source of all Algonquin tribes. They originally inhabited the Ohio Valley, Pennsylvania and West Virginia, but were forced from these lands by the Iroquois in the 1660s. Eventually they settled in South Carolina, Tennessee's Cumberland Basin, eastern Pennsylvania and southern Illinois. In Carolina they established trade with the British, dealing in deerskins and captured native women for firearms and whiskey. The Shawnee fought with the British against the French and against the Americans in the American Revolution. Their greatest leader was Tecumseh.;x
SHI;Shirvan;x
SHI_DESC;Shirvan is an historical region in the eastern Caucasus with a rich and diverse history dating back to pre-Islamic times. It was known for its strategic location between the Caspian Sea and the Kura River, making it a significant cultural and political center. The region was ruled by the Shirvanshahs, a Persianized dynasty of Arabic origin, from 861 to 1538. The Shirvanshahs were known for their patronage of Persian literature and culture, attracting poets like Khaqani and Nizami Ganjavi. Shirvan's history is marked by periods of independence and vassalage to larger empires, including the Timurids and later the Safavids, who eventually incorporated it into their realm in 1607.;x
SHL;Holstein;x
SHL_DESC;The Duchy of Holstein was originally created in 1111 as a county of the Holy Roman Empire and given to Adolf of Schauenburg. Since Lübeck and Hamburg were controlled by the Hanseatic League, Kiel and Rendsburg were the chief cities. In 1459 Holstein's Christian I, a Danish heir to the throne, established a personal union with Denmark to the great displeasure of the German majority in the region. In 1474, Emperor Frederick III raised Holstein to the status of duchy under the immediate suzerainty of the Holy Roman Empire (as distinct from Schleswig, which was outside the Imperial jurisdiction). Holstein remained independent, if often involved in wars between Sweden and Denmark, until 1866, when it was annexed by Prussia in the Peace of Prague.;x
SIA;Siak;x
SIA_DESC;An integral part of the ancient Malacca-Johor Empire, Siak became a separate state of its own in 1723. The founder of the sultanate, Sultan 'Abdu'l-Jalil Rahmat Shah alias Raja Kechil, was the putative posthumous child of Sultan Mahmud II of Johor. Although he had managed to seize the throne of Johor in 1718, his hold over the throne remained tenuous. Constant disputes forced him to remove his capital to Riau in 1719. Three years later, the Bugis princes defeated and expelled him from that place. He then moved his court to Siak. Stalemate over the contest for the throne eventually resulted in Siak developing into a separate sultanate. His infirmity in old age prompted a succession dispute between his sons. Raja Alam, the elder son by a commoner, allied himself with the Dutch and seized the throne in 1740. A dual system of government failed to resolve disputes over the succession. The contest for the throne was only resolved with the deposition of the Johor Dynasty. Al-Sayyid Sharif 'Ali, a nobleman of Arab descent and son of a princess, had been increasing his power and influence by allying himself to the Dutch. He assisted them in conquering Selangor, then returned with men and weapons and seized power in 1784. Initially satisfied with the regency, he tired of this subordinate role, deposed Sultan Yahya and established a new dynasty in 1797.;x
SIB;Sibir;x
SIB_DESC;The Khanate of Sibir was a state of Mongol origin, created after the disintegration of the Golden Horde in the mid-15th century. Its capital was located in the city of Sibir, near what is now Tobolsk, and the Khanate extended around the Ob and the Irtysch Rivers. The new Khanate managed to maintain its independence from the other Mongol Khanates, especially the Uzbeks. The Russian expansion to Siberia, began after the fall of the Kazan Khanate, in 1552. Cossacks began to settle in fortified camps and Yermak captured Sibir in 1581. The conquest of the Khanate was completed in 1598 when the last Khan fled. It opened the way to the Russian colonisation of Siberia;x
SIC;Sicily;x
SIC_DESC;The county and then kingdom of Sicily had been conquered from the Muslims in the 11th century by Normans lords. The kingdom passed to the Holy Roman Emperor, what the Popes couldn't accept. Charles of Anjou conquered the land with the Pope's blessing. The kingdom extended on the southern Italian peninsula and on the island of Sicily. Charles chose to set his capital in Naples and to give lands to his French friends over the local Sicilian lords. In 1282, the Sicilian Vespers insurrection obliged the French lords to flee Sicilia. The island became a kingdom of its own given to the house of Aragon. From the late 13th century to the early 15th century many conflicts and insurrections occurred until Alfonso V of Aragon conquered the kingdom of Naples, in 1442, creating the kingdom of Two-Sicilies. It would be the sources of the 15th and 16th centuries Italian Wars.;x
SIE;Siena;x
SIE_DESC;An ancient Roman colony, Siena became a bishopric in the 5th century. The city became free and independent in the 12th century. It was the rival city of Florence and chose to be Ghibeline, pro-Imperial, when the other was Guelph, anti-Imperial or pro-papal. Stricken by a banqueroute in 1298 and the Black Plague in 1348, the city knew an economic and social decline and instability dominated by the Visconti's influence. In 1487, Pandolfo Petrucci tried to revive the city through a tyrannical power. Seized by the French in 1493 and later faithful to them, the city was besieged by Charles V and captured by the Spaniards in 1555. Philip II of Spain offered the city to Cosme I of Florence two years later.;x
SIL;Silesia;x
SIL_DESC;Silesia is an historical region in Central Europe spanning parts of modern-day Poland, Germany, and the Czech Republic. Originally inhabited by Slavic tribes, it became part of the Polish state in the 10th century under Mieszko I. Over the centuries, Silesia experienced numerous shifts in sovereignty, including rule by the Bohemian crown in 1335, the Austrian Habsburgs in 1526, and Prussia in 1742. The region was heavily industrialized in the 19th century, contributing significantly to the economy of the new German Empire after 1871, with the Silesian capital Breslau being a major center of science and learning.;x
SIN;Sindh;x
SIN_DESC;The history of Sindh has been intertwined since 711 when it was conquered by the Umayyads.  In 1339 the Samma dynasty was found which oversaw the flowering of Sindhi culture and arts.  The dynasty would last until 1519 when it was conquered by invaders, and the kingdom lost its independence with the coming of Akbar in 1591.;x
SKA;Scania;x
SKA_DESC;Scania, historically known as Skåne, is a province in southern Sweden that was once a core part of the kingdom of Denmark. It became Swedish territory following the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. The region has a rich history, marked by its strategic location and fertile lands, which have made it a significant agricultural and trading hub.;x
SKH;Sikh Empire;x
SKH_DESC;The Punjab was the cradle of Sikhism, where the faith was first spread by its founder Guru Nanak in the late 15th century. By the mid-18th century, the loose coalition of autonomous Sikh states (known as misls) had been consolidated into the Sikh Confederacy under the leadership of figures like Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and Nawab Kapur Singh in order to resist Mughal and Afghan invasions. The Confederacy laid the groundwork for the Sikh Empire, established by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1799. Ranjit Singh unified the misls and expanded the empire, creating a powerful independent state in the Punjab renowned for its military prowess and religious tolerance. It reached its zenith in the early 19th century but, following the two Anglo-Sikh Wars, eventually fell to the British East India Company in 1849.;x
SLO;Slovakia;x
SLO_DESC;Slovakia, a landlocked country in Central Europe, has a rich and diverse history. Inhabited by Illyrian, Celtic, and Germanic tribes in the early centuries AD, the region saw the arrival of the Slavs around the 6th century. It became part of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 11th century and remained so for nearly a millennium.;x
SLZ;Salzburg;x
SLZ_DESC;Salzburg can be regarded as the oldest and most important cultural and spiritual center in present-day Austria. Although it had already been elevated to the rank of archdiocese in 798 and from the late Middle Ages onwards had formed a spiritual principality in the Holy Roman Empire, Salzburg is one of Austria's youngest Länder. The development of the region and its ultimate separation from Bavaria, its mother country, was brought about in the 14th century, but it was not until 1816 that Salzburg was formally incorporated into Austria. Of Austria's present-day Länder, or provinces, Salzburg is the only one to have been ruled as an independent state by a prince-archbishop, and it is the only one of the many spiritual principalities of the Holy Roman Empire that still exists as an independent province.;x
SMO;Smolensk;x
SMO_DESC;Smolensk, one of the oldest cities in Russia, has a history dating back to the 9th century. It was a significant stronghold and trading center in the Kievan Rus' and later became the capital of the Smolensk Principality. Over the centuries, Smolensk was a focal point of numerous conflicts due to its strategic location, including invasions by the Mongols, Lithuanians, and Poles. It was heavily fortified and played a crucial role during the Napoleonic Wars.;x
SNG;Song;x
SNG_DESC;The Song dynasty ruled China from 960 to 1279 and is renowned for its cultural and economic achievements. Founded by Emperor Taizu, the dynasty is divided into two periods: the Northern Song (960-1127) and the Southern Song (1127-1279), following the loss of northern territories to the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty. The Song era saw significant advancements in technology, agriculture, and trade, alongside flourishing arts and literature. Despite military challenges, including invasions by the Jin and later the Mongols, the Song dynasty maintained a prosperous and sophisticated society, leaving a lasting legacy on Chinese civilization.;x
SOC;Socotra;x
SOC_DESC;Socotra is an island in the Indian Ocean, southeast of Yemen, that is renowned for its unique biodiversity and alien landscapes. Its location has made it a crossroads for various cultures and empires over the centuries, and it has been visited by Greek, Arab, Persian, Indian and African traders and missionaries. The island was once home to an ancient Eastern Christian community, which is believed to have disappeared in the 17th century. With the exception of a brief period of Portuguese occupation in the early 1500s, Socotra was ruled by the Mahra sultans of Yemen - who brought Islam to the island - until coming under British protection in the 19th century.;x
SON;Songhai;x
SON_DESC;At first a vassal state of the Empire of Mali, located near Tombouctou, the major trade center, the Empire of Songhai rose in the 15th century. Sonni Ali gained fame fighting the Peuls and the Touaregs. He took Timbuktu in 1468, taking advantage of the quarrels of succession in the empire of Mali.  The Songhai definitively took the place of the defunct Empire of Mali during the 16th century but they were also striken by succession quarrels and the empire declined. It definitively collapsed with the Moroccan invasion in 1591. Small principalities would replace the mighty empire.;x
SOS;Sosso;x
SOS_DESC;The Sosso, an ancient West African kingdom, rose to prominence in the 12th century after the decline of the Ghana Empire. Under the leadership of Sumanguru Kante, the Sosso expanded their territory and exerted control over trade routes in the region. However, their dominance was short-lived: in the early 13th century, they were defeated by the rising Mali Empire under the leadership of Sundiata Keita at the Battle of Kirina in 1235. This defeat marked the end of Sosso's influence and the beginning of Mali's ascendancy in West African history.;x
SPA;Spain;x
SPA_DESC;Spain was born of the union of the crown of Castile and the crown of Aragon under a single monarch, Carlos I of Habsburg, who was also the Holy Roman Emperor and the mightiest monarch of the western world. With its annexation of Portugal, Spain became the dominant colonial power from the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, the first 'empire on which the sun never sets'. Such rare goods such as gold, silver, spices and other luxury items (including some chocolate) came to Europe through Spanish ports. Spanish arts, culture and intellectual life set European standards during the 16th century, 'the Golden Century'. But while the empire was growing in the colonies and for a time in Europe, particularly during the Italian Wars (1494-1559), England was slowly growing into a maritime power and became Spain's direct competitor. The rivalry was culminated in the aborted invasion of England by the Spanish Armada in 1588, a costly political fiasco that marked the beginning of a slow decline for this mighty empire.;x
STE;Golden Horde;x
STE_DESC;The Golden Horde was one of the successor states to Gengis Khan's enormous empire. It occupied most of the Mongols' European territory and held all of the Russian principalities save Novgorod in vassalage. The state went through a slow but steady decline and its mainly Russian population became vassals in little more than name. The great Timur's attack on the Horde in the 1390's weakened the state sufficiently that Moscow's rise to greatness could commence. The Khan attempted to crush the rebellions of his Russian subjects but with the establishment of the splinter Khanates of Crimea in 1430, Kazan in 1436, and Astrakhan in 1466, the Horde was but a shadow of its former greatness. The last surviving remnant of the Golden Horde was destroyed by the Crimean Khan in 1502.;x
STR;Strassburg;x
STR_DESC;Strassburg was under the temporal rule of its bishop when the city gained the status of free city of the Holy Roman Empire. The surrounding area was still under the rule of the Bishop of Strassburg. The wealth of the trading city will cause many conflicts between the burghers and the local nobles. In the 15th century, Gutenberg began his work on printing in Strassburg before moving to Mainz. The intellectual life flourished and the city welcomed the ideas of the Reformation. The city chose to elect a Protestant bishop alongside the Catholic one, beginning the 'war of the bishops', war won by the Catholic one, Charles of Lorraine, a Habsburg, just before the Thirty Years War, preventing major damages for the city. The peace of Westphalia in 1648 gave the lands of the Habsburgs in Alsace to France, but the city remained a free city of the Empire. The city was besieged in 1681 and annexed. The city would remain a border city for France keeping its privileges until the Revolution.;x
STT;Stettin;x
STT_DESC;Stettin, now known as Szczecin and located in modern-day Poland, is an historic port city situated on the Oder River near the Baltic Sea. Its history dates back to the early medieval period when it was a Slavic settlement, before becoming part of the Duchy of Pomerania in the 12th century. Stettin flourished as a key Hanseatic League member during the Middle Ages, which enhanced its prominence in trade and commerce across the Baltic. In the 17th century, it came under Brandenburg-Prussian control and developed further as an important naval and industrial center.;x
SUD;Sudan;x
SUD_DESC;Funj (or Sennar) was a medieval Islamic state in Sudan that existed from the late 15th century to the early 19th century. Centered around the city of Sennar, it was founded by the Funj people, who established a sultanate in the region after the decline of the Makurian and Alodian kingdoms. The Sultanate of Funj played a significant role in the region's history, fostering a blend of indigenous African and Islamic cultures. It became a key player in the trans-Saharan trade networks, engaging in commerce with North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and sub-Saharan regions. The sultanate was known for its promotion of Islam, which influenced its legal and cultural practices. However, by the early 19th century, the Sultanate of Funj faced incursions from Ottoman-Egyptian forces, leading to its eventual decline and incorporation into the expanding Egyptian realm of Muhammad Ali.;x
SUL;Sulu;x
SUL_DESC;Sulu is an archipelago and historical region in the southern Philippines, situated in the Sulu Sea between the islands of Borneo and Mindanao. Known for its rich maritime history, Sulu was the heartland of the Sultanate of Sulu, which was established in the 15th century by the Muslim Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim. The Sultanate was a significant Islamic state in the region, engaging in trade and diplomacy with neighboring states and European powers. Originally a vassal of Brunei, the Sultanate of Sulu played a crucial role in regional politics and was known for its distinct culture, which blends Malay, Arab, and indigenous Filipino influences. During the Spanish colonial period, the Sultanate resisted Spanish control and maintained a degree of autonomy.;x
SUN;Sunda;x
SUN_DESC;Although its early history is surrounded in legend, the kingdom of Sunda is thought to have first been founded in the 7th century. The kingdom was also sometimes referred to as Pajajaran (located between two parallel rivers), after its capital city. Eventually the 800 year-old kingdom was extinguished in 1579 by the expansive Sultanate of Banten.;x
SUS;Sus;x
SUS_DESC;Sus was an historical region in southwestern Morocco, located along the coastal plains of the Atlantic and bordered by the Atlas Mountains. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, it was a significant Berber kingdom, part of the broader indigenous Berber presence in North Africa. The kingdom was known for its strategic coastal cities and its role in regional trade networks. The most notable Berber dynasty ruling the region was the Almohad Caliphate, which established its power in the 12th century and integrated Sus into its extensive empire that stretched across North Africa and into Spain. The region was crucial for its agricultural production, trade routes, and as a cultural and political center. By the late 15th century, the rise of the Saadian dynasty and the increasing pressure from European powers led to changes in the region's political landscape, but the legacy of Berber Sus remains an integral part of Moroccan history and heritage.;x
SUZ;Vladimir-Suzdal;x
SUZ_DESC;Founded around 1024 as a fortress town, Suzdal developed during the 11th and 12th centuries into one of the principal cities of the grand duchy of Vladimir-Suzdal and a political and religious center of North-Eastern Russia. In the early 13th century it became the capital of the Suzdal principality, but it was razed by the Mongols under Batu Khan in 1238, and never recovered its importance. In 1451 Suzdal passed to the grand duchy of Moscow.;x
SWA;Swabia;x
SWA_DESC;Swabia, in southwestern Germany, derives its name from the Suebi, a Germanic tribe that settled in the area during the 3rd century AD. Known as one of the five great stem duchies of medieval Germany, Swabia encompassed parts of modern-day Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, and even extended into eastern Switzerland and Alsace. The region played a significant role in the Holy Roman Empire, particularly under the rule of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, which produced such emperors as Frederick I 'Barbarossa' (1155-1190), Henry VI (1191-1197) and Frederick II (1220-1250).;x
SWE;Sweden;x
SWE_DESC;Sweden is a very old nation with its roots in the misty times preceding the Viking era. In 1419 the country had recently been joined to Norway and Denmark in the Union of Kalmar, but the Swedes soon proved uncomfortable with having a Danish king. Most of the 15th century was spent vacilitating between staying in the union and leaving it. The final bloody farewells were said in 1521, when the Swedish nobleman Gustav Vasa forced the Danes to accept a totally independent Sweden. Both Danes and Swedes kept eyeing each other with deep mistrust however, and each nation dreamed of conquering the other. Gustav Vasa's reign was long and prosperous. Sweden went from being desperately poor and undeveloped to having good finances and a decent army. His death saw renewed strife as Sweden became embroiled in a long war against Russia for supremacy over Estonia, followed by a civil war between Duke Charles and King Sigismund that evolved into war with Poland. In 1617 the wars had been won and Sweden had gained more lands from Russia during the Time of Troubles. Gustav II Adolf was the greatest king Sweden has ever known, and with the help of his chancellor Axel Oxenstierna he totally reformed the country and beat the Imperials in the 30 Years War. Sweden was now the Great Power of Northern Europe - a position she would hold until 1718, when the hero king Charles XII died in battle, having failed in his defense of Sweden from her ravenous neighbors. The country faded once more into the periphery of European politics...;x
SYR;Syria;x
SYR_DESC;Syria, located in the Middle East along the Mediterranean Sea, is one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited regions. Its history dates back to ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians, Akkadians, and Amorites. Throughout the centuries, Syria has been a crossroads of various empires, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The region became a significant center of early Christianity and later, under the Umayyad Caliphate, Damascus served as the capital of the Islamic world.;x
TAN;Tangiers;x
TAN_DESC;Tangiers, located in northern Morocco, has a rich and varied history dating back to ancient times. Initially a Phoenician trading post, it later became a Carthaginian and then a Roman settlement. Over the centuries, Tangiers was captured by the Vandals, Byzantines, and Arabs, reflecting its strategic importance. In 1471, it fell to the Portuguese, and later to the English, who eventually ceded it to Morocco in 1684.;x
TAU;Toungoo;x
TAU_DESC;Toungoo was a Burmese town located on the Sittoung River. It rose to great prominence in 1486 when King Minkyino ascended the throne. His reign signaled a resurgence of the Burmese realm after two centuries of bitter internecine warfare between various petty kingdoms. By 1535, Minkyino's son Tabengshweti continued his father's conquests, until the Toungoo Dynasty controlled most of present-day Myanmar. In 1550 Tabengshweti's son-in-law Bayinnaung became ruler. In 1569 he invaded Siam and captured the city of Ayutthaya, but by 1584 Siam had once more become independent. In the following decades the Toungoo Dynasty lost most of its influence once again.;x
TEK;Teke;x
TEK_DESC;Located at the western Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor, Teke was founded by Yunus Beg in 1321 as a vassal lordship of the Hamidites to the north, in ancient Pisidia. Teke survived the annexation of its parent state by the Ottomans in 1389. Its capital was the strategic port of Antalya, which witnessed several invasions by the Latin kings of Cyprus. Although conquered by the Ottomans in 1390, the Beylik of Teke was re-established soon after Timur's victory at the Battle of Ankara. This revival, however, was to be short-lived as Teke's last ruler Osman Beg was assassinated in 1423. Osman's lands, along with the city of Antalya, were once more added to the Ottoman Empire.;x
TER;Ternate;x
TER_DESC;The volcanic island of Ternate was the seat of a local dynasty beginning in the 13th century and converted to Islam in 1495, the first of the Moluccan kingdoms to do so. The Moluccas were one of the most important the source of the spices trade. Through its 14th century victories on its neighbours, Ternate was the most important of the four sultanates (Ternate, Tidore, Bacan and Jailolo).  The first contact with Portuguese sailors was in 1512 after Franscisco Serrão's disastrous expedition and shipwreck. The sultan of Ternate allowed the Portuguese to build a fortress in 1522 as he thought to use them in his conflicts with the other islands. It went the other way as in 1535, the Portuguese deposed the sultan. They were expelled in 1575 and Ternate became a fiercely islamic and anti-Portuguese state. In 1606, the Spanish, allied to Tidore, captured Ternate and deported the sultan. The Dutch, who have come in the area in 1599, were called to help in 1607 and allowed to build a fort. The Spanish abandoned Tidore and Ternate in 1663 but the Dutch influence was now so important that Ternate became the seat of the V.O.C. capital, attempting to control all the spice trade.;x
TEX;Texas;x
TEX_DESC;The Republic of Texas was established on March 2nd, 1836, following its declaration of independence from Mexico. It existed as a sovereign nation until its annexation by the United States on December 29th, 1845. During its brief existence, the Republic faced numerous challenges, including conflict with Mexico, political pressure from the United States, internal struggles, and economic difficulties. Key figures such as Sam Houston, who served as its first and third president, played crucial roles in navigating these challenges. The Republic's legacy is marked by its efforts to establish a stable government and its eventual integration into the United States, significantly shaping the history of the region.;x
THE;Thessalonica;x
THE_DESC;The Kingdom of Thessalonica was a short-lived Crusader state established in 1204 following the Fourth Crusade's capture of Constantinople. Founded by Boniface of Montferrat, it served as a vassal of the Latin Empire and encompassed parts of Macedonia and Thessaly. Despite its initial expansion, the kingdom faced constant threats from neighboring states and internal strife. Boniface's death in 1207 led to a period of instability, and by 1224, the kingdom fell to the Despotate of Epirus. The Kingdom of Thessalonica's brief existence highlights the turbulent nature of the post-Crusade period in former Byzantine territories.;x
THO;Theodoro;x
THO_DESC;The Principality of Theodoro was a medieval state located in the Crimean Peninsula, existing from the 11th to the 15th centuries. Established in the region around the fortress of Caffa (modern-day Feodosia) by Byzantine and Genoese colonists, Theodoro was a small yet strategically significant principality that controlled the southern part of Crimea. It was ruled by a dynasty of Crimean Gothic origin from their capital at Mangup, and was able to maintain a degree of independence amidst the shifting power dynamics of the region - including threats from the Mongols, Tatars and later the encroaching Turks. The principality was known for its fortifications and its role in trade and regional diplomacy. By the late 15th century, Theodoro fell to the Ottoman Empire, which absorbed it into its growing territories, marking the end of its political and cultural influence in the Crimea.;x
THU;Thuringia;x
THU_DESC;Thuringia is an historical region located in central Germany, with a rich history dating back to ancient times. During the early medieval period, it was inhabited by the Thuringii, a Germanic tribe. By the 8th century, it was incorporated into the Carolingian Empire, and over the centuries, it became part of various territories and states, including the Holy Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages, Thuringia was a large and wealthy duchy, notably ruled by the Ludowinger dynasty. The region played a prominent role in the Reformation, with many Thuringians supporting Martin Luther.;x
TIB;Tibet;x
TIB_DESC;Tibet emerged from an obscure and mostly unknown history to flourish in the 7th century as an independent kingdom with its capital at Lhasa. In the 13th century Tibet fell under Mongol influence, but reverted to independence in 1368 when the Mongols were also evicted from China. In 1270 Kublai Khan, emperor of China, was converted to Buddhism by the abbot of the Sakya lamasery. The abbot returned to Tibet to found the Sakya dynasty (1270-1340) and to become the first priest-king of Tibet. In 1578 the Dge-lugs-pa, or Yellow Hat Sect, asked the Tümed Mongol leader Altan Khan to renew the relationship that had existed in the days of Kublai. In 1642, with exemplary devotion, Güüshi Khan enthroned the Dalai Lama as ruler of Tibet, marking the end of the reign of the old kings. The Chinese invaded in 1720, fearing a Tibet controlled by hostile Mongols. After an initial reverse, their armies drove out the Mongols and were welcomed at Lhasa as deliverers, all the more because they brought with them the new Dalai Lama, Bskal-bzang-rgya-mtsho. For the next 200 years there was no more fighting between Tibetans and Chinese.;x
TIM;Timurid Empire;x
TIM_DESC;Originally the western half of the Chagatai Khanate, the Timurids derived their name from the Great Khan known to history as Tamerlane (Timur Lenkh in Persian) who died in 1405. Tamerlane was one of those few military leaders who seemed to be blessed by the gods. He never lost a battle, and expanded his realm to reach from the frontiers of Byzantium to the gates of Delhi. However, by 1419 the Timurids had already begun their swift decline and their remaining power was concentrated in Afghanistan and Amu Darya. Though their realm was greatly reduced, the fame of the empire was still great and the magnificent cities of Samarkhand and Bukhara were long a by-word for wealth and learning. Their story ended with Bâbur, who transformed the ailing Timurids remnants into the great and vibrant Mughal Empire in the early 16th century.;x
TLE;Tlemcen;x
TLE_DESC;The Zayyanid Dynasty founded its capital at Tlemcen(in modern-state of Algeria). For over 300 years, the Zayyanids had a tenuous hold on central Maghrib. The regime was plagued by frequent rebellions but learned to survive as the vassal of the Merinids and later the Hafsids. At one time Tlemcen acted as an ally of Spain. Many coastal cities defied the ruling dynasties and asserted their autonomy as municipal republics. They were governed by their merchant oligarchies, by tribal chieftains from the surrounding countryside, or by the privateers who operated out of their ports. Nonetheless, Tlemcen prospered as a commercial center and was called the 'pearl of the Maghrib'. Tlemcen would eventually be devastated by the Spanish and later, conquered by the Ottomans.;x
TNT;Trent;x
TNT_DESC;The Prince-Bishopric of Trent was an ecclesiastical principality within the Holy Roman Empire, established in 1027 by Emperor Conrad II. It encompassed the region of present-day Trentino in Northern Italy. The prince-bishops of Trent held both religious and secular authority, making it a unique political entity. The bishopric played a significant role in the Counter-Reformation, hosting the Council of Trent from 1545 to 1563, which was pivotal in addressing the challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation. The principality was secularized in 1803 and incorporated into the County of Tyrol under the Habsburgs.;x
TOS;Tuscany;x
TOS_DESC;Under the fabulously wealthy Medici family, Florence went from being a small but rich city state to becoming the Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1569). Only the Republic of Lucca and the duchy of Massa and Carrara remained independent. After the extinction of the Medici line, Tuscany passed (1737) to ex-duke Francis of Lorraine (later Holy Roman Emperor Francis I), who was succeeded by Grand Duke Leopold I (1765-90, later Emperor Leopold II) and then by Ferdinand III (1790-1801, 1814-24). The French Revolutionary armies invaded Tuscany in 1799 and it was briefly included in the kingdom of Etruria (1801-7) and was ruled under the duchy of Parma before it was annexed to France by Napoleon I, who set up his sister to rule it from Lucca.;x
TOU;Toulouse;x
TOU_DESC;Toulouse, located in southern France, was originally a stronghold of the Volcae Tectosages, an ancient Celtic people. Known as Tolosa during the Roman period, it became an important trading hub. In the early medieval era, it served as the capital of the Visigothic Kingdom of Toulouse until it was taken by Clovis I in 508 AD. Throughout the rest of the Middle Ages, Toulouse was the center of the wealthy County of Toulouse and played a crucial role during the Cathar Crusades in the 13th century. The city also witnessed significant events during the French Wars of Religion in the 16th century.;x
TOX;Transoxania;x
TOX_DESC;Transoxania, historically significant in Central Asia, refers to the region located between the Oxus (Amu Darya) and Jaxartes (Syr Darya) rivers, encompassing parts of modern-day Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan. It was a vital crossroads of trade and culture from antiquity through the medieval period, integrating diverse influences from Persian, Greek, Indian, and Turkic civilizations. The region flourished under various empires, including the Greco-Bactrian, Kushan, and Samanid dynasties, and became a key part of the Silk Road trade network. The great cities of Samarkand and Bukhara were renowned centers of learning and culture, and formed the nucleus of the Timurid Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries. Transoxania's rich history reflects its role as a melting pot of cultures and a significant player in the political and economic dynamics of Central Asia.;x
TRA;Transylvania;x
TRA_DESC;The region of Transylvania was one of the earliest targets of German colonization. The Germans, who were mainly merchants, lived side by side with Hungarians and Romanians, although the three groups never blended well. Up until the mid-16th century the fortunes of Transylvania (called Siebenbürgen in German) was closely tied to those of Hungary, and the two states alternated in control of each other. Following conquest by the Ottoman Turks however, Transylvania was greatly reduced, and made into a puppet kingdom. Over time this state became more and more independent, to the point that it virtually managed its own destiny by the mid-17th century. Following the reconquest of the area by the Austrian Empire, the region was revitalized by new German emigrants arriving from the early 18th century on.;x
TRE;Trebizond;x
TRE_DESC;When the treacherous army of the Fourth Crusade overthrew the Byzantine Empire and established the Latin Empire of Constantinople in 1204, several Greek successor states sprang up around it. The Empire of Trebizond was one of them. After the Mongol invasion the empire experienced tremendous economic prosperity, as it became the crossroad of trade routes leading to Russia, the Mediterranean and the Middle East. With the decline of Mongol power after 1320, Trebizond suffered increasingly from attacks by various Turkish clans and states, civil wars, and domestic intrigues, until it eventually fell in 1461 after leading a coalition of Greek powers against the Sultan, in a last-ditch attempt to restore the Byzantine Empire. At the height of its wealth and power the court of the Grand Comneni was a great artistic and cultural center and made Trebizond the last refuge of Hellenistic civilization.;x
TRI;Tripolitania;x
TRI_DESC;After its conquest by the Muslim armies in the 7th century, Tripolitania became subject to various Arab and Berber dynasties, among them the Aghlabids, the Fatimids, and the Hafsids. In 1510 Tripoli was captured by the forces of Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, who turned it over to the Knights of St. John in 1530. The latter lost the region only 21 years later to the Ottoman Turks, who ruled it either directly or through suzerains for the next 360 years. In 1711 the local governor, Ahmad Karamanli, won recognition from the Ottomans as hereditary pasha (governor), and his dynasty ruled Tripolitania for all but a few years until 1835.;x
TRP;Tripoli;x
TRP_DESC;The County of Tripoli, established in 1102 during the First Crusade, was one of the Crusader states in the Levant. Founded by Raymond IV of Toulouse, it initially encompassed the coastal region from Maraclea to Beirut. The county's strategic importance lay in its control of key trade routes and its position as a buffer between the Crusader states and Muslim territories. Despite the constant political flux of the Crusader era, the County of Tripoli managed to maintain its autonomy until 1289, when it was conquered by the Mamluks. The fall of Tripoli marked the end of one of the last major Crusader strongholds in the region.;x
TRR;Trier;x
TRR_DESC;The Archbishopric of Trier was a prominent ecclesiastical state within the Holy Roman Empire, located in what is now western Germany. Established in the 4th century, it evolved into a powerful principality by the Middle Ages, with the Archbishop holding both religious and temporal authority. As one of the seven prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire, the Archbishop of Trier played a crucial role in electing the Emperor. Trier was known for its impressive Roman and Gothic architecture, including the Trier Cathedral and the Porta Nigra, and was a center of trade and political influence. The archbishopric's authority extended over a substantial territory, which included significant urban and rural areas. By the late 18th century, the Archbishopric of Trier was secularized and incorporated into France during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, ending its long history as a political and religious power.;x
TRV;Travancore;x
TRV_DESC;A small principality hugging the southern tip of India in 1419, Travancore would grow to be the most imposing native regional opponent of the onrushing European conquest of India during the 18th century by annexing several of its smaller neighbors in an expansionist campaign which included victories over the Dutch.;x
TUN;Tunisia;x
TUN_DESC;The Berber Hafsid dynasty began in 1228 when Abû Zakariyâ Yahyâ proclaim his independence from the Berber Almohad dynasty. The capital was set in Tunis and flourished through its trade with Genoans, Venetians, Aragoneses and Sicilians. The Hafsids expanded in the 14th century on the west to Central Algeria and to the east to Tripolitania but soon they declined limited on the west by the Moroccan Merinids, a plague in 1384, succession quarrels, retaliations from the Christian kingdoms to piracy and, after the Reconquista, the difficult integration of the Spanish Moors. The Hafsid became caught in the struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire and the latter seized Tunisia in 1574. The Beys of Tunisia were appointed by the sultan but actually only ruled the cities. The local beys became more and more independent and created a local dynasty. Losing the Ottoman financial support, Tunisia became the haven for pirates that would cease their art only after the French invasion in 1836.;x
TUR;Ottoman Empire;x
TUR_DESC;The first phase of expansion of the heirs of the great Osman was checked and partially reversed by their huge defeat in 1402 at the hands of Tamerlane. The remaining Ottoman possessions were beset by civil war, which gradually cooled down under Mehmet I. Then the Ottomans had a stroke of great fortune: five successive Sultans of exceptional ability, who expanded the empire, enriched its merchants and patronized the arts and sciences. In 1453, Constantinople was conquered, and the Ottomans assumed increasingly imperial trappings. The Mamluks were overrun in 1517. By the end of the reign of Süleyman I ('the Magificent') in 1566, the Ottomans, the acknowledged leaders of the Islamic world, were, together with the populous Chinese and the globe-spanning Spanish empires, one of the greatest powers of that age. Subsequent internal politics and increasing conservatism led to the loss of their pre-eminence, though the Ottomans remained a great power until the late 18th century. By the early 19th century, their economy weakened by near-continuous wars, the loss of trade, their fossilized institutions, and their corrupt army, the Ottomans were ripe for reform.;x
TVE;Tver;x
TVE_DESC;Tver grew into a town in the 12th century out of a small outpost in Northwestern Russia. After the Mongol invasion the small principality became a vassal of the Khan. In the 1300s it began a struggle with Moscow over who would become the Grand Prince of Russia - a title appointed by the Khan. After wars and intrigue and the second devastation of Tver by Mongols in 1327, it was clear that Moscowy had the upper hand. Although it made an alliance with Lithuania in 1368, and ravaged the city of Moscow twice, it was soon made to rely on its Lithuanian ally. In 1485 it was finally annexed by its old rival.;x
TWO;Two Sicilies;x
TWO_DESC;The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was a state in southern Italy that existed from 1816 to 1860, formed by the merger of the Kingdoms of Sicily and Naples under the rule of the Bourbon dynasty. With its capital in Naples, it was the largest of the Italian states before the unification of Italy. The kingdom was characterized by its agrarian economy, which was heavily dependent on landownership and agriculture, and it faced profound economic challenges and social unrest. The Bourbon rulers, notably King Ferdinand II, were reactionaries who resisted the liberal and nationalist movements sweeping across Europe. The kingdom's dominance was challenged by the rising forces of Italian unification led by figures such as Giuseppe Garibaldi. In 1860, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was conquered by Garibaldi's forces and subsequently annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia, leading to the establishment of a unified Kingdom of Italy under the House of Savoy.;x
TYR;Tyrol;x
TYR_DESC;In the 14th century, the Habsburgs, dukes of Austria, inherited the lands of the counts of Tyrol and dukes of Carinthia. They suddenly had a strategic position on the main roads through the Alps they were already seeking in their struggle against the Swiss cantons. In 1420, Innsbruck became a Tyrolean residence for the Habsburgs. By the 18th century, the county of Tyrol was fully annexed and all affairs were treated directly in Vienna.;x
UCA;Central America;x
UCA_DESC;The United Provinces of Central America, also known as the Federal Republic of Central America, was a short-lived federation established in 1823 after gaining independence from Spain and briefly joining the Mexican Empire. It comprised the present-day countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. The federation aimed to create a unified Central American state but was plagued by internal conflicts between rival Liberal and Conservative factions. Despite efforts to maintain unity, the federation was dissolved in 1840.;x
UKR;Ukraine;x
UKR_DESC;In the mid-14th century, Lithuania and Poland expanded eastward and southward, repelling the Tatars from Ruthenia, that is part of actual Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. Poland went as far as the Black Sea, pushing the Tatars to Crimea. At the same time, they were also repelling the Cossacks, formerly Ruthenian peasants of Orthodox religion but who didn't want to be ruled by Catholic lords. By a revolt of Cossacks and Ukrainian peasants, a Cossack Hetmanate is created in 1649, soon vassalized but still autonomous in 1654. By the treaty of Andrusovo, in 1667, the Hetmanate was divided in a Polish protectorate and a Russian one. Podolia in the Polish protectorate was invaded by the Ottomans in 1672, Kiev was captured in 1681. In 1699, the treaty of Karlowitz gave back the lands to Poland. Catherine the Great of Russia suppressed the Hetmanate in the 18th century.  All of Ukraine would be in Russian hands after the Polish partitions of the late 18th century.;x
ULS;Ulster;x
ULS_DESC;Ulster was the northeastern Irish kingdom. Traditional quarrels between the Irish kingdoms were interrupted in the late 12th century by the settlements of Anglo-Normans lords, who encouraged by Henry II of England, dethroned the king of Leinster. The Irish lords were gradually replaced by English nobility. In 1205, the English King, John Plantagenet, created the earldom of Ulster. Despite English rule, the local families of the O'Neills and the O'Donnells were still important and between 1594 and 1601, they led a revolt against the protestant rule of Elizabeth I of England. Suppresion of the revolt was harsh and led to the immigration of protestant settlers, mainly Presbyterians from Scotland. In the 18th century, the laws against Presbyterians led to a migration of these former Scottish to America.;x
URB;Urbino;x
URB_DESC;Urbino is an historic city in the Marche region of central Italy, best known for its significance during the Italian Renaissance. The city reached its cultural and political zenith in the 15th century under the rule of Federico da Montefeltro, who became Duke of Urbino in 1444. Federico was a renowned military leader and a passionate patron of the arts and education, transforming Urbino into a vibrant center of Renaissance culture. He commissioned the construction of the Palazzo Ducale, an architectural masterpiece that became a symbol of Renaissance ideals. Urbino attracted artists, scholars, and humanists, including the painter Raphael, who was born there in 1483. The duchy of Urbino eventually came under papal control in the early 16th century.;x
URG;Uruguay;x
URG_DESC;Uruguay, located on the southeastern coast of South America, has a rich history that dates back to its early indigenous inhabitants, including the Charrúa people. European exploration began in 1516 with the arrival of Spanish explorers. The region was contested by Spain and Portugal until the early 19th century when it became part of the Empire of Brazil. Uruguay declared its independence in 1825 and secured it in 1828 after a three-year struggle.;x
USA;United States;x
USA_DESC;The Spanish were the first to explore the coast of the actual United States, creating the first permanent settlement in St. Augustine, in 1565. They controlled Florida, Texas and from there to California. French and English explorers sailed to the American Coasts. French Protestant settlements where destroyed by the Spanish in Florida in 1564. The English colony in Roanoke failed around 1588 but it succeeded in Jamestown in 1607. The English would colonize the eastern coast, between Spanish Florida and French Canada, to the Appalachian Mountains. Their colonies developed plantations, especially tobacco and cotton, and used the slave manpower imported from Africa. In the mid-18th century, England raised the taxes in the colonies and refused them a representation to the Parliament. Revolts occurred and a Revolution started in 1775. The thirteen American colonies declared their independence in 1776. France and Spain helped the insurgents and, together, managed to defeat the English armies. Peace was concluded in 1783 by the treaty of Paris.;x
UTR;Utrecht;x
UTR_DESC;Utrecht, located in the heart of the Netherlands, has a history that stretches back to Roman times when it was known as Trajectum ad Rhenum. Established around 50 AD as a Roman fortification, it later became a significant religious center with the establishment of a bishopric in 696 AD. Throughout the Middle Ages, Utrecht was a powerful and prosperous town, playing a crucial role in the Low Countries' political and economic development. The signing of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 laid the foundation for the Dutch Republic, and despite being surpassed by Amsterdam during the Dutch Golden Age, Utrecht remained a vibrant city known for its historical architecture and cultural heritage.;x
UZB;Uzbek;x
UZB_DESC;The Uzbeks are a Turkic tribe formerly known as Sarts, who in the early 16th century invaded the Timurid realm from the northwest, led by the brilliant Muhammad Shaybânî. A remnant of the empire of the Golden Horde, the Uzbeks took their name from Uzbeg Khan, from whom their dynasty claimed descent. Later in the 16th century, the Uzbek Khan Abdullah extended his domain over parts of Persia, Afghanistan, and the Chagatai Khanate, but the empire soon broke up into separate principalities - notably Khiva, Kokand and Bukhara.;x
VAL;Valencia;x
VAL_DESC;The Kingdom of Valencia, established in 1238 by King James I of Aragon during the Reconquista, was a significant realm on the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. It emerged after the conquest of the Moorish taifa of Valencia and became part of the Crown of Aragon. The kingdom enjoyed a period of prosperity and autonomy, governed by its own laws and institutions known as the Furs of Valencia. However, its independence ended in 1707 when it was dissolved by the Nueva Planta decrees following the War of Spanish Succession.;x
VEN;Venice;x
VEN_DESC;Though Venice can trace its origins back to the Ligurians of the Roman era, it wasn't until the Italian invasion of Attila the Hun in 452 that the groundwork of the city was established. In 727 Orso Ipato was elected as the first Doge. This practice would continue for over 1000 years, making Venice the longest lasting Republic in history. Venice was the greatest port of the late Medieval and Renaissance era and, after its final defeat of its bitter rival Genoa in 1381, the premier maritime power of the Mediterranean. Over the next century, the star of Venice shone brightly, with several key ports and islands brought under the control of 'La Serenissima'. However, their interests in the eastern trade brought them into frequent and increasingly desperate conflicts against the Ottoman Turks. Venice struggled on however, and together with her allies crushed the Turkish navy at Lepanto in 1571, only to lose Cyprus the same year. After a long campaign between 1645 and 1669 Venice also lost Crete, her last possession in the eastern Mediterranean. One more brilliant campaign remained in her history however - that of the brilliant general Francesco Morosini, who in 1684-88 conquered Morea from the Turks. But the conquest proved profitless and became an expensive burden, and in 1718 it was returned to the Ottomans. The end of the Republic came at the hands of Napoleon. The Peace of Leoben left Venice without an ally, and Ludovico Manin, the last doge, was deposed on May 12, 1797.;x
VER;Verona;x
VER_DESC;Verona, located in northern Italy along the Adige River, was initially founded by an ancient tribe, possibly the Euganei or Raeti, and later became a Roman colony in 89 BC. Verona's strategic location at the crossroads of major Roman roads contributed to its rapid rise in importance. Throughout the centuries, it was ruled by various powers, including the Ostrogoths, Lombards, Milanese, and the Venetian Republic. The city is renowned for its well-preserved Roman architecture, such as the Verona Arena, and its association with Shakespeare's 'Romeo and Juliet' - for which it provides the setting.;x
VIE;Vientiane;x
VIE_DESC;When King Souligna Vongsa died in 1694 without an heir, the Laotian kingdom of Lan Xang was thrown into turmoil that resulted in the creation of three separate kingdoms by 1713. Vientiane occupied the central portion of Laos and was ruled by Souligna's nephew. Much of its short history saw it in conflict with Luang Prabang and outside forces like Dai Viet. The Siamese captured Vientiane in 1778-79 and made it a vassal state. When Vientiane revolted, it was finally destroyed in 1827-28.;x
VIJ;Vijayanagar;x
VIJ_DESC;The Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar ('City of Victory') was established in 1336 by two Telugu Princes, Harihar and Bukka, in order to check the advance of Islam in the Deccan. By 1404, the whole of the Deccan plateau and southern India had been unified by the forces of Vijayanagar. However, the continued conflicts with Islamic Sultanates to the north turned into a stalemate at best. Invaded by all of her Muslim neighbors, Vijayanagar collapsed in 1565, dragged down by the overwhelming forces arrayed against her, thus paving the way for the Mughal Empire and its vassals to occupy its former territory.;x
VIN;Vinland;x
VIN_DESC;Vinland is a semi-legendary region in North America briefly explored and settled by Norse Vikings around the year 1000 AD, as described in the Icelandic sagas. Believed to be located somewhere along the northeastern coast of North America, possibly in modern-day Newfoundland, Vinland was named for its abundance of wild grapes and fertile land, which made it attractive to Norse explorers. The most famous expeditions to Vinland were led by Leif Erikson, who is credited with being the first European to set foot on the continent, and later by his brother Thorvald and others. However, the Norse settlements in Vinland were short-lived, largely due to conflicts with indigenous peoples - whom the Norse called 'Skrælings' - and the logistical challenges of maintaining such distant outposts. Though the Norse eventually abandoned Vinland, its legacy endures as an early European encounter with the Americas, predating Columbus by nearly 500 years.;x
VLG;Volga Bulgaria;x
VLG_DESC;Volga Bulgaria was a medieval state that existed from the late 9th century until its conquest by the Mongols in the mid-13th century. It was situated on the confluence of the Volga and Kama Rivers in what is now Tatarstan in European Russia, and began life as a vassal of the Khazar Khaganate. Founded by the Bulgars, a Turkic people, it became a significant trading hub due to its strategic location between the Rus' principalities, Byzantine Empire, and the Cuman and Avar confederations. The state converted to Islam in 922 AD under the rule of Almis Khan, fostering cultural and economic ties with the powerful Abbasid Caliphate. From its great capital at Bolghar (and later Bilär), Volga Bulgaria thrived as an independent and comparatively centralized multi-ethnic state for three centuries, dominating the Eurasian Steppe and its lucrative slave trade. Its legacy lives on in the form of modern Bulgaria, which was formed by the Bulgar Khan Asparuh in 681 AD.;x
VNZ;Venezuela;x
VNZ_DESC;Venezuela, located on the northern coast of South America, has a rich history that spans from its early indigenous inhabitants, such as the Arawak and Carib peoples, to its colonization by Spain in 1522. It was one of the first Spanish-American territories to declare independence in 1811, later becoming part of Gran Colombia before separating as a sovereign nation in 1830.;x
VOL;Volhynia;x
VOL_DESC;Volhynia, an historic region in Central and Eastern Europe, spans parts of modern-day Ukraine, Poland, and Belarus. Its history dates back to the early medieval period when it was a principality within Kievan Rus'. Volhynia became prominent in the 12th century, particularly under the rule of Prince Roman Mstislavich, who united it with Galicia. The region experienced numerous invasions and changes in sovereignty, including Mongol devastation in the 13th century and later incorporation into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and in turn the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Following the partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, Volhynia was annexed by the Russian Empire.;x
WAL;Wallachia;x
WAL_DESC;Wallachia was born from the Hungarian threat in the 13th century, leading to the unification of small duchies or voivodeships. If Wallachia is said to have been founded in 1290 in southern Transylvania by Radu Negru, Basarab I the Founder is said to have been the first master of a whole and centralized Wallachia or Bessarabia. By defeating the king of Hungary in 1330 he secured the Wallachian independence. The Ottomans landed in Rumelia in 1354. In the late 14th century, Wallachia was obliged to pay a tribute to the Turks and in 1417,Wallachia became a vassal to the Ottomans. Wallachia maintained its dynasty and alternated periods of revolts and of submission to the Turks, in function of the progression of the Ottomans in the Balkans. Michael the Brave (1593-1601) briefly united Walachia with Moldavia and Transylvania. But he had to face the invasion of the Habsburgs and Poles troops who occupied Wallachia until 1602. Nogai troops came from Crimea and gave back Wallachia to the Ottomans who ruled directly the lands through Phanariots governors.;x
WLS;Wales;x
WLS_DESC;The Welsh, like their close kin the Irish and Scots, are a Celtic people with a separate tradition from that of its Belgae-Celtic neighbors in present-day England. The Anglo-Saxon conquest of eastern Britain in the late 5th century did not seriously affect the Welsh, and neither did the Viking invasions. Not even the Normans could bring the hardy Cymry to their knees, and clung to their freedom until 1283. The Gaelic language, however, remained alive and well in Wales for five centuries more.;x
WRZ;Würzburg;x
WRZ_DESC;Würzburg was originally a Celtic settlement and was made an episcopal see by St. Boniface in 741. Following the dissolution of the duchy of Franconia in the 10th century, the bishops of Würzburg came to lord over a vast territory on both sides of the Main as prince-bishops of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1168 the bishops assumed the title of dukes of Eastern Franconia, of which they held a major part. During the Peasants' War the bishop of Würzburg temporarily (1524-25) lost his territory to the rebels, but he held out at his fortress of Marienberg against Götz von Berlichingen. Later, the splendor-loving prince-bishops transformed the city into one of the finest in Europe and founded the University of Würzburg in 1582.;x
WSX;Wessex;x
WSX_DESC;The Kingdom of Wessex was founded around 519 AD by the West Saxon chieftain Cerdic, and over time became the preeminent Anglo-Saxon state within the Heptarchy. It expanded significantly during the reigns of the early kings Ine (688-726) and Ecgberht (802-839), who consolidated West Saxon power and extended the kingdom's territory. Wessex played a crucial role in resisting the Viking invasions of the 9th century, particularly during the reign of Alfred the Great (871-886), who fortified the kingdom and laid the groundwork for a unified English state. This feat was finally achieved by Alfred's grandson Æthelstan in 927, at which point the history of Wessex becomes that of the Kingdom of England.;x
WUR;Württemberg;x
WUR_DESC;The Wirtembergs (Württembergs), a local dynasty of counts dating back to the late 11th century, began to extend their control over large sections of Swabia from the mid-12th century. By the time Württemberg was made a duchy in 1495, the Estates had come to play an important role in its government. Duke Ulrich, who became a Habsburg vassal in 1534, introduced Lutheranism into the duchy and confiscated church lands. Duke Frederick (1593-1608) secured the duchy's release from Habsburg overlordship and was a pillar of the Evangelical Union of Lutheran and Calvinist Princes (1608). Württemberg was devastated in the Thirty Years' War (1618-48) and fell prey to French invasions from 1688 until 1693 during the War of the Grand Alliance, yet somehow managed to prosper. The duchy was an ally of France from 1802 to 1813 and was rewarded by Napoleon with large grants of territory, including many Habsburg lands in Swabia and numerous free Imperial cities and ecclesiastical territories. These additions doubled Württemberg's size by 1810, and the duchy was successively raised to the status of an Electorate (1803) and a Kingdom (1806), which it remained even after Napoleon's downfall.;x
XHO;Xhosa;x
XHO_DESC;The Xhosa are a Bantu-speaking ethnic group native to the southeastern region of South Africa, primarily in the Eastern Cape Province. With a rich cultural heritage, the Xhosa people have a long history of resistance to European colonization, particularly during the series of conflicts known as the Xhosa Wars, which spanned from 1779 to 1879 against Dutch and later British settlers. These wars were significant in shaping the colonial boundaries of South Africa. The Xhosa are known for their complex social structures, including a system of clans and a deep oral tradition based around their unique tonal language with its 'click consonants'.;x
YEM;Yemen;x
YEM_DESC;The Imamate of Yemen was a theocratic state that existed in the highlands of Yemen, ruled by Zaydi imams who claimed descent from the Prophet Muhammad. Established by Imam Yahya al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq in the late 9th century, the Imamate was rooted in the Zaydi branch of Shi'a Islam, which emphasized the leadership of the imam as both a spiritual and temporal authority. Throughout its long history, the Imamate experienced periods of fragmentation and reunification, often contending with external powers such as the Ottomans and later the British. Despite these challenges, the Imamate maintained its independence and a distinct identity, especially in the northern highlands.;x
YRL;Yaroslavl;x
YRL_DESC;The Principality of Yaroslavl was a medieval Russian state that existed from the early 13th century until its annexation by the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1463. Centered around the city of Yaroslavl, located along the Volga River, the principality was founded by Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest's son, Konstantin Vsevolodovich, and played a strategic role in the northeastern Rus' lands. Yaroslavl was a significant trade and cultural center, known for its development of architecture and iconography. Throughout its history, the principality maintained relative autonomy, even as it came under the influence of more powerful neighboring states like the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and later Moscow. The integration of Yaroslavl into Moscow marked a step in the consolidation of the Russian territories under Moscow's control, contributing to the eventual formation of the centralized Russian state.;x
YUA;Northern Yuan;x
YUA_DESC;The Northern Yuan dynasty was the continuation of the Mongol Empire's Yuan dynasty after its expulsion from China in 1368 by the Ming dynasty. Retreating to the Mongolian steppes, the Northern Yuan maintained the legacy of Genghis Khan's lineage, with various khans claiming the title of Great Khan and asserting their rule over the fragmented Mongol tribes. Despite efforts to unify and revive their former glory - notably under rulers like Esen Taishi (who held the Emperor Yingzong captive) and later Dayan Khan - the Northern Yuan struggled with both internal division and external pressure from the Ming dynasty. By the late 17th century, the dynasty effectively dissolved as the Mongols were incorporated into the Qing dynasty, marking the end of the Northern Yuan as a political entity.;x
YUC;Yucatán;x
YUC_DESC;The First Yucatán Republic was established in 1823 as a short-lived independent nation on the Yucatán Peninsula, which included the present-day Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche, and Quintana Roo. Having initially declared independence from the Spanish Empire, it voluntarily joined the First Mexican Republic six months later. The Second Yucatán Republic was declared in 1841, owing to political and economic disagreements with the Mexican central government. Governed by the Constitution of 1841, the republic emphasized individual rights and religious freedom. However, the combination of lack of foreign support and the Caste War of Yucatán led to its reintegration into Mexico in 1848.;x
ZAN;Zanzibar;x
ZAN_DESC;The island Sultanate of Zanzibar attracted Muslim traders interested in using its harbors as a base from which to trade with the tribesmen of the East African coast. They intermarried with the indigenous population to form a trade-oriented culture that competed with Kilwa to dominate the trade along the East African coast. The arrival of the Portuguese in 1499 virtually destroyed Zanzibar's profitable trade between the gold-exporting city of Sofala and ports in India and the Arabian Peninsula. It wouldn't recover until it was conquered by the Omanis in 1698 and became the capital for their overseas possessions.;x
ZAP;Zapotec;x
ZAP_DESC;An indigenous nation located in the south of what is now Mexico, the Zapotec were an agricultural people who were highly religious. Eventually the Mixtec would come from the North and push out the Zapotec, but both the Mixtec and the Zapotec would find themselves fighting against the mighty Aztec Empire until the fateful arrival of Cortez and his Conquistadores.;x
ZEE;Zeeland;x
ZEE_DESC;Zeeland, the westernmost province of the Netherlands, has a history deeply intertwined with its struggle against the sea. Its name - literally 'sea land' - reflects this ongoing battle, symbolized by its motto 'Luctor et emergo' ('I struggle and emerge'). Historically, Zeeland was a contested area between the counts of Holland and Flanders until it was annexed into the County of Hainaut in 1299. The region's landscape has been continually reshaped by alluvial deposition, dike construction, and devastating floods.;x
ZET;Zeta;x
ZET_DESC;The Principality of Zeta was a medieval Serbian state that existed from the late 14th century until the early 16th century in modern-day Montenegro and parts of northern Albania. Originally part of the Serbian Empire, Zeta emerged as a semi-independent principality following the decline of centralized imperial authority after the death of Emperor Dušan in 1355. The Balsic family was the most prominent dynasty to rule Zeta, with the principality often serving as a buffer state between the powerful Ottoman Empire to the east and the Venetian Republic to the west. The final truly independent Zetan prince was Balsa III, whose premature death in 1421 left the rump principality to be slowly devoured by its neighbours.;x
ZIM;Zimbabwe;x
ZIM_DESC;The gold of Zimbabwe has been mined since at least the 5th century. Between the 9th and 13th centuries the Great Zimbabwe stone monument was built by a Bantu civilization. They traded gold and ivory for Arabic or Asian goods with Arabs on the Eastern coast of Africa. The civilization declined in the 15th century, probably from the overpopulation and drought. Several kingdoms were created, one of those being the Kingdom of Mwene Mutapa, going on the trading with the Arabs and with the newly arrived Portuguese. The Portuguese stayed on the coast but tried to get the monopoly on the trade. Internal strife disintegrated the Mwene Mutapa Empire. The gold mining was nearly exhausted and most of the trade, essentially slaves, went to the Sultanates of Khiwa and Zanzibar. The Portuguese conquered the remnants of the Mwene Mutapa Empire in 1629.;x
ZUL;Zulu;x
ZUL_DESC;The Zulu are a branch of the southern Bantu and have close ethnic, linguistic, and cultural ties to the Swazi and Xhosa, all of whom speak dialects of the Nguni language. They originally migrated southward in the late 17th century, reaching the area around the Tugela River, where they eventually came into contact with the European settlers from the Netherlands, and later in the 19th century, the British. Under their ruthless king Shaka, they formed a Zulu Empire together with the neighboring Natal Nguni in the early 19th century. Shaka's wars resulted in literally millions of deaths - an astounding figure for the time and region.;x
#;x
CRA;Cracow;x
GBR;Great Britain;x
PLI;Poland-Lithuania;x
RTN;Rattanakosin;x
THN;Thonburi;x
UNK;United Kingdom;x
VNM;Viet Nam;x
#;x
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